A Thesis submitted
to the DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, MANAGEMENT AND EXTENSION of EBONYI
STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D) in agricultural economics
Abstract
The growth of agro-allied processing enterprises in
Ebonyi State seems not to be developing at the same rate as farm production
aggregates inspite of the fact that the state is highly agrarian. This could be attributed to the lack of
development of other complementary aggregates of agribusiness other than the
farm aggregate, thereby resulting to a low value addition to farm output and a
high level of poverty in the state. The
central objective of the study was to establish the roles of institutions in
the development of micro/small agro processing enterprises and implications for
poverty alleviation. Cassava, Rice, Oil
palm fruits processing enterprises were used as case study. Data were collected from 264 processors from
nine (9) Local Government Areas of the state.
Data collected was through the use of structured questionnaire and
interview schedules administered to the processors and credit
institutions. Data analysis involved the
use of descriptive statistics, cross tabulation, multiple regression analysis,
likert scale techniques, impact assessment model using scheffe test and the use
of factor analysis. The major findings
showed that out of the 37% mean loanable fund for micro/small enterprises, only
8% was disbursed by banks. Majority of
the processors had low educational status with a mean of 9 years, a mean age of
44 years and a mean family size of 9 persons.
The mean loan obtained was N72,972 with no significant difference
between those who accessed loan from formal and non formal sources. Mean size of capital, value of Enterprise
Assets and Monthly Revenue from enterprises were N68,936, N195,204 and N33,379
respectively for the three enterprises with significant differences in their
mean values. The coefficient of
determination (R2) on the influence of socio-economic
characteristics of the processors on the amount of credit obtained from
financial institutions was 76%. Many
social amenities were not functional while some were non existent. Banking Institutions and Electricity Supply
had no effect on the development of micro/small enterprises. There were significant differences in the
level of access to institutional facilities by male and female processors,
which reflected on their access to education, formal credit, acquisition of
land and raw materials among others. All
the institutional facilities were highly significant to poverty alleviation but
the most important ones were access to credit, improvement on safety and
security, improvement in public transport and quality of infrastructure. Enhanced income had significant effect on
entrepreneurs’ households, businesses and neighbourhood but was not significant
on their self-esteem. Rice processing
enterprise had the highest impact among the three enterprises. Six factors were identified as constraints to
enterprise development using varimax rotated factor matrix. They are issues of inappropriate and high
cost of equipment, sustainability and business environment factors,
socio-infrastructural problems, economic/financial setback, marketing
inhibitions and government policy issue.
It is recommended that Government empowers Micro Finance institutions
(MFIs), improves on the provision of basic infrastructure and encourages local
fabrication of equipment. Processors
should form genuine and functional cooperatives to benefit maximally from
government programmes and related institutions, thereby alleviating poverty in
the State.
Table of content
Title: Pages:
Cover Page: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
Approval Page:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ii
Certification Page: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- iii
Acknowledgement:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- iv
Dedication: - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - v
Abstract: - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - vi
Table of Content: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- vii
List of Tables: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- xiv
List of Figures:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- xviii
Chapter One
1.0
Introduction: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
1.1
Background: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - -- 1
1.2
Problem
Statement: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 7
1.3
Objective
of Study: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 11
1.4
Hypotheses
of Study: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 12
1.5
Justification
for the Study: - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 13
Chapter Two
2.0
Literature Review and Conceptual Framework: 16
2.1
Introduction: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 16
2.1.1 Concept of Micro and Small Enterprise
Development: - - - - 19
2.2
Policies
for Revitalizing the Industrial Sector:
- - - - - - - - - 21
2.2.1 Status: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 26
2.2.2 Raw Materials utilization: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27
2.2.3 Infrastructure: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - 27
2.2.4 Investment in Economically Disadvantaged
Areas: - - - - -- 28
2.2.5 In – Plant – Training: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 28
2.2.6 Local Value Addition: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 28
2.2.7 Export Oriented Industries: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28
2.2.8 Research and Development (R & D): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 28
2.2.9 Abolition of Excise Duty: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29
2.3
Definition
of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises:
- - - - - 30
2.4
Definition
and Importance of Agro-Allied Based Enterprises:- 32
2.5
Characteristic
or features of Micro/Small Enterprises:
- - - - 34
2.6
Contributions/Importance
of Micro/Small Enterprises: - - -- 36
2.7
Definition
and Concept of Institution: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 40
2.8
Institutions
and Micro/Small Enterprises Development:
- -- 42
2.8.1 Government or Government Agencies: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 43
2.8.2 Ministry of Education: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 43
2.8.3 National Directorate of Employment: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 43
2.8.4 Ministry of Health: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - 44
2.8.5 Ministry of Works, Transport and
Housing: - - - - - - - - - - - 44
2.8.6 Ministry of Public Utilities: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45
2.8.7 Ministry of Justice: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - 45
2.8.8 Ministry of Science and Technology: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 45
2.8.9 Ministry of Agriculture: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- 45
2.8.10 Democracy:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45
2.8.11 Financial Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 46
2.8.12 Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs): - - - - - - - - - - - 47
2.8.13 Management Training Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49
2.8.14 Market and Marketing Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49
2.8.15 Policy Framework: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - 50
2.9
Problems
confronting Micro/Small Enterprises Development: 51
2.9.1 Inadequate and Inefficient Infrastructural
Facilities: - - - - - 51
2.9.2 Constrained Access to Credit: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 52
2.9.3 Poor Management practices and Low
Entrepreneurial Skill: 53
2.9.4 Financial Indiscipline: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 53
2.9.5 Poor Implementation of Policies: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54
2.9.6 Restricted Market Access: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54
2.9.7 Overbearing Regulatory and Operational
Environment: - - - 55
2.9.8 Problem of Machinery and Equipment: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 56
2.9.9 Human Development: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - -- 56
2.10
Women
and Micro/Small Enterprises: - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -- 58
2.11
Financial
Institution and Micro Finance for Micro/Small
Enterprises Development in Nigeria: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
64
2.11.1 Central Bank Credit Guideline: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
65
2.11.2 Small Scale Industries Credit Guarantee
Scheme: - - - - - - - - 65
2.11.3 Establishment of Agricultural Credit
Guarantee Scheme (1979): 65
2.11.4 The Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry
(NBCI) (1973): 65
2.11.5 The Nigeria Industrial Development Bank Ltd
(NIDB): - - - - 66
2.11.6 The National Economic Reconstruction Fund
(NERFUND): - 66
2.11.7 World Bank – Assisted SME II Loan
Project: - - - - - - - - - -- 67
2.11.8 Rural Banking Scheme: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- --
67
2.11.9 People’s Bank of Nigeria (PBN): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
2.11.10
Community Banks:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
2.11.11
National
Directorate of Employment (NDE): - - - - - - - 68
2.12
Micro
Finance for Micro/Small Enterprises: - -
- - - - - - - - - - 71
2.13
Definition
and Concept of Poverty: - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 76
2.14
Agro-Allied
Enterprises and Income Generation: - - -
- - - - -- 78
2.15
Strategies
for Poverty Reduction: - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 82
2.16
Industrialization
Process in Ebonyi State Food Sector: - -
- - - 85
2.17
Conceptual
Framework: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -- 88
Chapter Three
3.0
Methodology: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 94
3.1
Study
Area: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 94
3.2
Sampling
Techniques: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - 95
3.3
Method
of Data Collection: - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - 99
3.4
Nature
of Data Collected: - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -- 100
3.5
Method
of Data Analysis: - - - - - - - - - -- -
- - - - - - - - - - - - 102
3.5.1 Use of Descriptive Statistics: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 102
3.5.2 Multiple Regression Model: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 102
3.5.3 Test of Hypotheses: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - 109
3.5.4 Use of Cross – Tabulation: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 110
3.5.5 Likert Scale Technique: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 111
3.5.6 Impact Assessment Model: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 112
3.5.7 Use of Factor Analysis: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 114
Chapter Four
4.0
RESULTS:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115
4.1
Socio
– Economic Attributes of Micro/Small Agro Processors
in the State: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 115
4.1.1 Identification of Agro-allied processing
enterprises in the
state and related institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115
4.1.2 Micro/Small Agro-allied processing
enterprises and Banking
Institutions in the
State: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -- 117
4.1.3 Socio – Economic characteristics of
Micro/Small Agro –
Processing Entrepreneurs in Ebonyi
State: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 118
4.1.4 Years in Skill Acquisition and
processing: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
--
120
4.1.5 Enterprise Characteristics: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 121
4.1.6 Age of Enterprise and Registration with
Agencies: - - - - - - - - - 121
4.1.7 Sources of Capital at Inception of
Business: - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- 123
4.1.8 Loan obtained and Sources: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- 124
4.1.9 Number of Informal Credit
Organisations: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - 125
4.1.10 Distance of Enterprise location from
Banks: - - - - - - - - - - - - 126
4.1.11
Number
and Types of Organisations Entrepreneurs belonged to: -- 127
4.1.12 Size of Working Capital and Value of
Enterprise Assets: - - - - 128
4.1.13 Monthly Revenue from Enterprise: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 130
4.1.14 Age and Cost of Agro-Processing
Equipment: - - - - - - - - - - - 131
4.1.15 Number of Employees engaged by
Entrepreneurs: - - - - - - - - - 132
4.1.16
Fulltime
Workers, Apprentice, Casual and Unpaid Workers
engaged in Agro-Processing: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 133
4.1.17 Assistance received by Processors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- 135
4.1.18 Cross-Tabulation Results: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 136
4.2.0 Results of Regression Analysis: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 153
4.2.1 Summary of Regression Results in Regression
1 – Effect of
Socio – Economic characteristics of
Entrepreneurs on Amount
of Institutional Credit for Enterprise
Development: - - - - - - - - - - - 154
4.2.2 Result of Second Regression – Effect of
Socio – Economic
characteristics on the level of Assistance
received from institutions: 157
4.2.3 Result of Inter – Correlation
Analysis: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - 160
4.3.0 Influence of Institutions on Establishment
and Development of
Agro-Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 161
4.4.0
Assessment
of Gender Issues that influenced Institutional involvement
in the Development of Agro-Allied
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - 165
4.4.1 Cross-Tabulation between the Genders: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 165
4.4.2 Problems of Female Processors and Suggestions
for Improvement: - 171
4.5.0 Effects or influences of Institutional
Performance on Agro-
Processing Enterprise Development And
Poverty Reduction: - - - - 173
4.5.1 Causes of Low Performance: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 173
4.5.2 Description of Business Growth and Factors
Influencing growth: -- 174
4.5.3 Effect of Enhanced Income on
Agro-Processing Business, Family,
Neighbourhood and Self Esteem of
Entrepreneurs: - - - - - - - - - -
- 176
4.5.4 Beneficiary Impact Assessment of
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - --
- 178
4.5.5 Respondents’ Perception of Relationship
between access to
Institutional facilities and implication on
Poverty Reduction: - - - - 184
4.6.0 Results of Factor Analysis: - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 187
Chapter Five
5.0
Discussion: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 191
5.1 Introduction: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -- - 191
5.1.1 Agro-Allied Micro/Small Processing
Enterprises and Related
Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
191
5.1.2 Micro/Small Agro – Allied Processing
Enterprises and Banking
Institutions in Ebonyi State: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 196
5.1.3 Socio-Economic Characteristics of
Respondents and Relationship
between the three Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - -- 197
5.1.4 Years in Skill Acquisition and
Processing: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 200
5.1.5 Enterprise characteristics: - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
201
5.1.6 Age of Enterprises and Registration with
Agencies: - - - - - - - - - -- 202
5.1.7 Sources of Capital at Inception of
Business: - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
- 204
5.1.8 Loan obtained and Sources: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- - 204
5.1.9 Number of Informal Credit
Organisations: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- - - 206
5.1.10 Distance of Enterprise location from
Bank: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 206
5.1.11 Number and Types of Organisations
Entrepreneurs belonged to: - - 206
5.1.12 Size of Working Capital and Value of
Enterprise Assets: - - - - - - - 207
5.1.13 Monthly Revenue from Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 208
5.1.14 Age and Cost of Agro-Processing
Equipment: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- 209
5.1.15 Number of Employees engaged by
Entrepreneurs: - - - - - - - - - - -
- 210
5.1.16 Fulltime Workers, Apprentices, Casual and
Unpaid Workers
engaged in Agro-Processing: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- -- 210
5.1.17 Assistance received by Processors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
-- 211
5.2.0 Result of Regression Analysis - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 214
5.2.1 Influence of some Socio-Economic attributes
of Agro – Processing
Entrepreneurs on amount of Credit obtained
from both Forma and
Non Formal Credit Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 215
5.2.2 Influence of some Socio-Economic attributes
of Agro – Processing
Entrepreneurs on level of Assistance
received from Government
Agencies and Non Governmental Organisations
(NGOs): - - - - - - 217
5.2.3 Result of Inter – Correlation
Analysis: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 219
5.3.0
Influence
of Institutions on Establishment and Development of
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - 220
5.4.0
Gender
Issues that Influence Institutional Involvement in the
Development of Agro- Allied Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - 224
5.4.1 Cross-Tabulation between Male and Female
Entrepreneurs with
Chi – Square output Result: - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
224
5.4.2 Problems of Female Processors and
Suggestions for Improvement:- 230
5.5.0
Effects
or Influence of Institutional Performance on Agro –
Processing Enterprise Development and
Poverty Reduction: - - - - - 231
5.5.1 Causes of Low Performance: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- -- 231
5.5.2 Description of Business Growth and Factors
influencing growth
of Agro-Processing Business: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- 232
5.5.3 Effect of Enhanced Income and
Agro-Processing on Business,
Family, Neighbourhood and Self Esteem of
Entrepreneurs: - - - - - - 234
5.5.4 Beneficiary Impact Assessment of
Enterprises: - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 235
5.5.5 Respondents’ Perception of Relationship
between access to
Institutional Facilities and Implication on
Poverty Reduction: - - - - 237
5.6.0 Identification of Factors that are
Constraints to the Performance of
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- - - - - - 239
Chapter Six
6.0
summary, conclusion and recommendation: -
- - 251
6.1
Summary:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 251
6.2
Conclusion: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 262
6.3
Recommendations: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 264
6.3.1 Recommendation to Government: - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 264
6.3.2 Recommendation to Processors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - 266
6.4
Suggested
Areas for further Research: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 267
References:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - 268
Appendix:
Inter – Correlation Analysis Table: - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 279
Research Questionnaire to Processors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 281
Research Questionnaire to Banks: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 299
LIST
OF TABLES
Tables Page
3.1 Production of Cassava, Rice and Oil Palm
Fruits in Ebonyi
State according to L.G.As in Metric
Tonnes: - - - - - - - - - - - 97
3.2 Number of identified Processors according to
L.G.As: - - - - 97
3.3 Number of Processors, Communities and L.G.As
selected for
the study: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 98
1.
Percentage
Distribution of Loanable and disbursed Fund to
Micro/Small
Agro-processors by Banks: - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - 117
2.
Socio-Economic
attributes of Entrepreneurs -Age Distribution,
Household Size, marital
Status and Educational Status: - - -- 119
3.
Years
in Skill Acquisition and Processing: - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 120
4.
Enterprise
characteristics: percentage Distribution
According
to Gender, location of
Enterprise, Primary occupation and
Enterprises chosen: - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 121
5.
Age
Distribution of Enterprises and Percentage Distribution of
Enterprises with Business
Registration: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 122
6.
Distribution
of Respondents by sources of Capital at Inception
of Business: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 123
7.
Distribution
of Entrepreneurs according to loan obtained and
sources: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 124
8.
Distribution
of Entrepreneurs according to number of Informal
Credit
Organisation in their Community: - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 125
9.
Percentage
Distribution of Processors according to Distance of
Enterprise location from
bank: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 126
10.
Percentage
Distribution of Entrepreneurs according to number
and Type of Processing Groups they
belonged to: - - - - - - - - 127
11.
Percentage
Distribution of Entrepreneurs according to size of
Working Capital and Total Value of
Capital Assets: - - - - - 129
12. Percentage Distribution of Entrepreneurs
according to
Monthly Revenue from
Enterprise: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 130
13. Percentage Distribution of Equipment
according to years of
usage and Cost: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - 131
14.
Percentage
Distribution of Entrepreneurs according to number
of employees engaged: - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 132
15. Percentage Distribution of Fulltime,
Apprentice, Casual and
Unpaid Workers engaged in Agro-Processing: - - - - - - - - - - 134
16. Percentage Distribution of Entrepreneurs
according to forms
of Assistance Received and Relevant
Institutions: - - - - - - - 135
17.
Cross-Tabulation
Result relating Gender of Enterprise Owner
and the 3 Agro - Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
137
18. Cross-Tabulation Result of Age of
Enterprise Owner and the
three Agro-Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 138
19.
Cross-Tabulation
Result of Family Size among the three Agro-
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 139
20. Cross-Tabulation Result of Educational
Status of Processors
and Agro-Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 140
21.
Cross-Tabulation
Result of Years spent in Processing with the
three Agro-Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 141
22. Cross-Tabulation Result of Entrepreneurs
who obtained loan
by the Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 142
23. Cross-Tabulation Result of sources of loan
by the three
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- - - - 143
24. Cross-Tabulation of Amount of Loan obtained
with the
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 144
25. Cross-Tabulation Result of Years spent in
Skill Acquisition
with the Processing Enterprises: - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 145
26. Cross-Tabulation Result of Size of Working
Capital of the
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 146
27. Cross-Tabulation Result of Total Value of
Capital Assets of
the Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -
- 148
28.
Cross-Tabulation
Result of Number of Employees by the three
Agro-Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 149
29. Cross-Tabulation Result of Monthly Revenue
of the three
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - 150
30.
Cross-Tabulation
Result of Cost of Equipment of the Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 151
31. Cross-Tabulation of Number of Organisation
Entrepreneurs
belonged to: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -- 152
32.
Summary
of Result of three functional forms in Regression 1: - 154
33. Summary of Regression Result of the effects
of the Socio-
Economic Characteristics of
Entrepreneurs on Amount of
Institutional Credit got for Enterprise
Development: - - - - - - 155
34. Summary of Stepwise Regression of effect of
Socio -
Economic Characteristics of
Entrepreneurs on the level of
Assistance received from
Institutions: - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - 158
35. Distribution of Respondents according to
Availability and
Functionality of Social
Infrastructure/Amenities: - - - - - - -
- 162
36.
Distribution
of Respondents according to Monthly Expenditure
on provision of Own Amenities and
Services: - - - - - - - - - - 163
37.
Likert
Scale Analysis of the Availability and Influence of some
Infrastructure/Amenities
on the Establishment and Development
of Micro/Small Agro-Processing
Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - 164
38. Cross-Tabulation with X2 output
of Gender with Access to
Institutional
Facilities: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 166
39. Problems of Female Agro-Processors and
Suggestions for
Improvement: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 170
40. Distribution of Respondents according to
causes of low
performance in Agro-Processing Business: - - - - - - - - - - - 174
41. Distribution of Respondents according to
description of
Business Growth and Factors influencing
growth of Agro-
Processing Enterprises: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - 175
42.
Distribution
of Entrepreneurs according to effects of increased
Income
from Agro-Processing on Family, Neighbourhood and
Self Esteem: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 177
43. Impact Assessment of Agro-Processing on
Business
Development and Quality of
life of Family of Processors: - 179
44.
Impact
Assessment Test of Enterprises on Neighbourhood: - - 181
45.
Impact
Assessment of Enterprises on Processors’ Self Esteem: 183
46.
Perception
of Respondents on Possible Impact of Institutional
Facilities and Implication on
Poverty Reduction: - - - - - - - 184
47. Likert Scale Analysis of the Perceived
Impact of Institutional
facilities to Business Environment and
Poverty Reduction: - 186
48.
Varimax
Rotated Factor Matrix of Factors that are considered
hindrances
to Micro/Small Scale Enterprises Development in
Ebonyi State: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - 188
Table I in Appendix – Inter-Correlation
Analysis of some socio –
Economic Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
with Amount of Loan
obtained from Financial Institutions: - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 279
Table
II in Appendix – Inter-Correlation Analysis of some socio –
Economic
characteristics of Entrepreneurs with the level of Assistance
received
from Government Agencies and Non Governmental
Organisations (NGOs): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 280
Organisations (NGOs): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 280
List of Figures
Figure Page
Conceptual Framework – Relationship between
Institutions,
Micro/Small Agro – Allied Processing
Enterprises and Poverty
Alleviation: - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 88
chapter one
1.0
Introduction
1.1
Background:
The role and contributions of micro and small
enterprises to economic and social development have been universally recognized
as crucial and particularly for industrialization in developing countries,
(Anderson, 1982). One of the enduring
programme approaches to poverty reduction is micro and small enterprises
development. The pursuit of poverty
reduction should involve measures employed to empower the populace to be
economically productive with a view to improving their quality of life.
The proper development of every developing economy
depends to a large extent on the establishment of viable Micro, Small and
Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) since it is the MSMEs that later develop into mega
enterprises or companies either through mergers and/or acquisition of other
businesses or growth through stages over time.
Bhalla, (1992) affirmed that it is an established fact that industrial
and economic development among countries come faster through viable micro,
small and medium scale enterprises than through large-scale enterprises. This is particularly the model handed down to
the world by the Asian – Countries. The
success of the Asian countries is their resolute and painstaking development of
their micro, small and medium enterprises.
In line with Federal Ministry of Industry (1993),
micro and small enterprises employ more labour per unit capital employed,
mobilize domestic savings for investment, promote the use of raw materials,
serve as training grounds for indigenous entrepreneurs, provide raw materials
for larger organisations and make for equitable distribution of income as well
as ensure regional balance in industrialization. Adeleja (2004) noted that micro and small
businesses make an important contribution to real income growth and equity in
developing countries. They are the
source of future employment with new jobs arising from the small business
sector than the large enterprises. As
small businesses grow in size and number, the economic benefits spread widely
through the community. Micro and small
businesses tend to be industries that are labour intensive and rapidly exploit
new market opportunities. They create
jobs particularly for the poorest and are typically strong agents as market
force innovation. Income generated by
micro and small businesses is spent on education, health, shelter, nutrition
and other quality life improvement.
Therefore they contribute immensely to employment generation, rural development,
utilization of indigenous resources, economic growth and industrialization.
There is mounting evidence that non-agricultural
income is an important source to farm and other rural households since the
incomes generated from agricultural production are not high enough to guarantee
sustainable livelihood for the household.
Micro and small enterprises may be agro-allied or non agro-based. The availability of food in adequate quantity
and quality all year round at affordable price is the aim of the National Food
Security. The target focuses on enhanced
food production, processing, storage as well as distribution and
marketing. Agro-allied enterprises are
strictly dependent on farm products for its sustainability and include cassava
processing, palm oil processing, vegetable oil processing, rice milling, fruit
processing into juice, processing of yams into flour, snack production and
milling of agricultural products.
Non agro-based enterprises on the other hand are not
directly dependent on agricultural products.
They include handicrafts and various professional skills such as black
smiting, knitting, petty trading, sewing, carpentry, pottery, weaving baskets,
mat making, cloth making, hair dressing among others. They are however indirectly or directly
related to agribusiness through some forward and backward linkages (Alimba
1995). Adelaja (2004) observed that most
raw materials for cottage and small-scale industries are agro-based. Therefore the intimate relationship between
agricultural and rural non-farm industries indicates that the vitality of the
agricultural sector will to a large extent determine the attractiveness of
rural manufacturing investments.
Agro-allied processing enterprises therefore complement farm activities
in providing gainful employment and increased income to the people as well as
forming economic linkages with the farm.
Institutions on a broad definition according to North
(1994) are the devices that structure political, economic and social
interactions. They include social
networks, gender roles, legal systems, etc.
They are either state or non state.
Institution can also be understood in terms of organisations such as
banks, government agencies, community associations, trade and professional
unions, kinship network and markets.
Understanding institutions is important in any project attempting to
reduce poverty because they affect people’s opportunities by establishing and
maintaining their access to social materials and natural resources. Institutions involved with enterprise
development could be government ministries, agencies and parastatals, formal
educational institutions, financial institutions, non-governmental
organisations, professional bodies, private consultants and external donor
agencies. These institutions have
potentials of promoting entrepreneurial skills for the development of micro and
small agro-allied processing enterprises.
These institutions could be grouped under government and non-government,
rural and urban institutions.
Among government institutions are ministries, agencies
and parastatals that favour the establishment and development of micro/small
agro-allied processing enterprises. The
non-governmental institutions are banks, Non-Governmental Organisations,
professional bodies, etc. Institutions
can also be categorised into rural or urban depending on where they are
predominant. Rural institutions comprise
of cultural and traditional setting of the rural populace. Age grade system, town union organisations,
land tenure systems, women associations and informal unions, credit acquisition
are among the rural institutions. Urban
institutions include banks, urban market network and associations, external funding agencies for micro
and small enterprise development. North,
1994 asserted that, weak institutions affect the performance of the
enterprises, which leads to poverty. On
the other hand poverty is reduced when these institutions strongly favour the
establishment and growth of micro and small agro-allied processing enterprises.
In recognition of micro and small enterprise benefits,
Federal Government has put in place agencies like National Poverty Eradication
Programme (NAPEP), which has various mandates to deliver social services to
micro and small enterprises. Small and
Medium Enterprises Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) encourages investment
and creates opportunities for self-reliance and economic empowerment of the
people. It is important to ensure that
partnership between public and private investments is encouraged. In some cases, it may require more investment
from the private sector to ensure business growth, generation of jobs, high
incomes and productivity. In other
instance, government must provide the enabling environment as it affects basic
infrastructure, good governance and regulatory framework (Ibrahim 2005).
Ebonyi State is a young and agrarian state. It has large expanse of arable land, large
population and conducive environment to produce enough food for her people and
for export as well as raw materials for food processing industries (EBSG Blue
Print 2004). As a young and agrarian
state, she needs rapid development in the food sector to make meaningful
contribution to the industrialization of the nation. However, being a young state, the deplorable
state of rural roads as well as lack of electricity and water in some areas of
the state adversely affect the take off and sustained growth of rural
industrialization in the food sector.
Fresh food crops due to their physiology are prone to
spoilage and significant quantity of fresh crops produced by farmers in Ebonyi
State are found to be lost to various forms of spoilage due to improper
handling during marketing and distribution.
This colossal post harvest loss contributes to high poverty level in the
rural farming communities and urban centres.
Distribution of fresh foods in the state was found to be disorganized
and constrained by lack of physical infrastructure, lack of marketing
information system, commodity standardization and economic services/credit
facilities according to Ebonyi State Government (EBSG) Blue Print (2004). Preservation, storage or conversation of food
into value added stable consumer products can serve as a veritable means of
increasing the wealth base of the citizenry as well as a means of employment
generation and poverty alleviation in the state.
Institutions for the reduction of poverty through
micro/small agro-allied processing enterprises must promote opportunities,
facilitate empowerment and enhance security at all levels. Generally, institutions must create
incentives for people to invest in more efficient technology, increase their
skills and organise efficient markets thereby elevating the economic potentials
and social status of the populace.
1.2
Problem Statement:
Over the years, the expected impact of micro and small
enterprises in the creation of significant employment opportunities has not
been felt. Nigerian’s industrial
experience has faltered as a result of its weak foundation due mainly to lack
of appropriate linkages between micro, small and medium enterprises, large
corporations and seemingly weak institutional framework. Adeniyi and Daramola (2004) stated that the
vertical integration and forward or backward linkages expected between
industrial establishments across scale boundaries (micro, small, medium and
large industries) have not taken place.
Federal Ministry of Industries (1993) stated that,
weak management, limited access to institutional sources of credit, poor legal
environment, infrastructural problems as well as no ready market for finished
products, bad governance and corruption are some of the limiting factors
against the development of micro and small enterprises. Despite the realization that micro/small
enterprises are the growth engine of the nation’s economy, Obiora (2004) noted
that the sub-sector has been bedevilled with problems such as fluctuating and
prohibitive interest rate and volatile exchange rate regimes, which make it
difficult for entrepreneurs to seek credit from banks. There is lack of appropriate policy
guidelines to protect the infant industries.
He equally observed that Nigerians have unbridled appetite for foreign
goods and this has resulted to closure or/and downsizing of few existing small
industries. High cost of supplementing
our poor infrastructure and the impact of corruption on the cost of doing
business have accounted for low returns on micro and small enterprises
investment.
According to Akinlami (2006), taxation is enforced by
the three tiers of government and micro and small enterprises seem to face the
jeopardy of multiple taxations. Limited
access to institutional credit is a major inhibiting factor in the growth and
development of micro/small enterprises.
This explains why many small businesses have been started mostly on
personal savings, family contribution and support from friends and well wishers
(Okoye, 2004).
EBSG Blue Print 2004, observed that, Nigerian farmers,
including Ebonyi farmers, produce a lot of food but regrettably, most of the
foods are wasted due to lack of processing, preservation and storage
facilities. Food crops such as cassava,
rice, oil palm fruits, oranges, mango and yam produced in large quantity in the
state can be processed into many industrial and consumer goods, which are in
high demand in both national and international markets.
The growth and development of agro-allied processing
enterprises in Ebonyi State seem not to have developed inspite of the fact that
the state is highly agrarian, needing such complementary enterprises for a well
balanced agribusiness tri-aggregates.
This lack of development of the other aggregates except the farm
aggregate in terms of agro-allied processing enterprises seems to be the main
reason for high level of poverty in the state.
All the problems may have institutional causes. While the rural areas are abundantly rich in
human and material resources; the rural dwellers are massively very poor. Worthy of note is the inadequacy of
infrastructural facilities such as roads, potable water, communication,
electricity and decent housing in the rural areas.
Processing which leads to preservation, storage or
conversion of fresh food into value added stable consumer products can serve as
a veritable means of increasing the wealth base of the citizenry as well as a
means of employment generation or poverty alleviation. Weak institutions affect
the establishment and development of micro and small agro-allied processing
enterprises. This invariably impacts
negatively on poverty reduction in Ebonyi State. The research attempted to find answers to
some pertinent questions in connection to how institutions affect agro-allied
processing enterprises and poverty reduction.
Ebonyi is young and agrarian in nature. There is urgent need for industrial development
in the food sector to cope with the ever-increasing population. Agricultural production without concomitant
processing, preservation and storage leads to waste. Are there agro-allied processing enterprises
in the state to convert the raw materials for added value both for consumption
and exports? What are the institutions
that are supposed to promote the establishment and development of micro and
small agro-allied processing enterprises in the state? To what extent have these institutions
promoted/are promoting the enterprises?
Majority of the population live in the rural areas. They are mostly farmers with poor educational
background, weak financial status, without modern equipment, lack professional
expertise in processing and are generally poor.
What relationship does the socio-economic characteristics of the
entrepreneurs have in relation to institutional actions on the establishment
and growth of agro-allied processing enterprises?
Ebonyi State being a young state is grappling with
issues of industrial development. The
deplorable state of rural and urban roads as well as lack of electricity and
water in some rural areas adversely affect the take off and sustained growth of
rural industrialization. How has
institutional inefficiency in providing these basic facilities affected the
establishment and development of agro-allied processing enterprises in the
state?
Ebonyi women seem to produce and process majority of
the food in the state. However, they
seem to face constraints such as
illiteracy, restricted access to land, credit, farming input, inadequate
processing technology, limited or no access to support services and
incentives. To what extent have gender
issues influenced institutional involvement in the development of micro/small
agro-allied processing enterprises in the state?
Institutions play important role in the establishment
and development of micro and small enterprises.
These institutions could be government or non-governmental, rural or
urban based. Strong institutions lead to
sustained enterprises, which result to enhanced income, improvement in
education, housing, nutrition, increased savings and investment. How have these institutions influenced the
performance of the enterprises thus reducing poverty in the state? Weak institutions on the other hand, hinder
the growth of micro and small enterprises.
What are the factors, which act as bottlenecks to institutional
performance in micro/small agro-allied processing enterprises in the state?
There seem to be a gap in knowledge in Nigeria on the
cross – cutting issues of how institutions influence agro-processing
development and growth on one hand and how they influence poverty levels on the
other hand. The study is necessary in
the state because of seemingly non existence of such empirical knowledge, which
is needed for policy. Answers to the
above questions would link the performance of institutions to the promotion of
micro/small agro-allied processing enterprise to poverty alleviation in the
state.
1.3
Objective of the Study:
The broad
objective of this study is to examine the performance of institutions to
development of micro/small agro-allied processing enterprise and the
implications for poverty alleviation in Ebonyi State.
The specific objectives are to:
i.
identify
some micro/small agro-allied processing enterprise in the state and their
related institutions,
ii.
ascertain
the socio-economic characteristics of the agro-processing entrepreneurs,
iii.
determine
the institutions that influence the establishment and development of agro-processing
enterprises,
iv.
assess
gender issues that influence institutional involvement in the development of
the agro-allied processing enterprises,
v.
determine
how institutional performance affects/influences agro-allied processing
enterprises development and poverty alleviation,
vi.
identify
the constraints to institutional performance in micro/small agro-allied
processing enterprise development and,
vii.
discuss
the implication of the finding on poverty alleviation.
1.4
Hypotheses of Study:
Based on the research objectives, the following null
hypotheses were tested.
Ho1a. The
socio-economic attributes (characteristics) of agro-processing entrepreneurs do
not significantly influence the amount of credit got from financial
institutions for enterprise development.
Ho1b. The
socio-economic attributes (characteristics) of the agro-processing
entrepreneurs do not significantly influence the level of assistance from
institutions for enterprise development.
Ho2. There is no
significant difference in the level of access to institutional facilities by
male and female agro-processing entrepreneurs.
Ho3. There is no
significant relationship between access to institutional facilities and level
of poverty alleviation.
1.5
Justification for the Study:
Economic growth and development cannot be accelerated
if attention is not focussed on issues of integrated rural development with
respect to farm production, agro-allied enterprises, facilitating services and
marketing of input and outputs.
According to Bello (2006), collaborative and concerted
efforts are required for rapid transformation of the rural economy, because
rural dwellers make up two thirds of the total national population. Increased food production cannot satisfy the
increasing food demand unless attention is focussed on reducing post harvest
losses. Consequently, increase in
agricultural productivity per se will hardly lead to improvement in food
availability without concomitant increase in the capacity of agro-allied
enterprises to conserve basic food staples through enhanced processing and
marketing options.
The development of agro-allied processing enterprises
does not only eliminate local or seasonal gluts and shortages but has a major
role in stimulating agriculture to produce more and the stabilisation of food
prices. Agro-allied processing
enterprises ought to be developed in Ebonyi State considering her rich
agricultural potential. This in no small
measure will stimulate the provision of appropriate technology, raw material,
product and market to solve socio-economic demand of the people thereby
enhancing their income generation. It
is expected that the orientation of Ebonyi people from food producers to food
processors would have positive effect on their economic and socio-political
status. A gap in information seems to
exist on institutions influence or failure to influence the growth of micro and
small-scale agro-enterprises in the state and how it affects poverty
alleviation. The study is necessary
because of seemingly non existence of such empirical knowledge which is needed
for policy. Considering the agrarian and
young nature of the state, a study that links institutions to micro/small
agro-allied processing enterprises and its implication on poverty alleviation
becomes imperative. Favourable institutions
for the establishment and development of micro/small agro-allied processing
enterprises maximize agricultural products, through value addition.
The study provides an insight into the income and
employment generating capacity of the agro-processing enterprises as well as
the extent of farm and non-farm linkages for enterprise sustainability. The training needs and management capacity of
the agro-processing entrepreneurs have been assessed in order to suggest appreciable
approaches for improvement.
The result will mainly be used for advocacy concerning
the need to improve institutional performance to agro-processing enterprise
development and poverty alleviation in Ebonyi State. The study will also aid government – policy
makers, research scholars, financial institutions, industrialists and rural
development experts formulate the best policies for economic and industrial
development of the State.
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