The
world wide fund for nature, simply referred to as the WWF is an international
non-profit organization working on issues relating to conservation, research
and restoration of the environment and natural habitats. It was formally called
world wide life fund. It is the world’s largest independent conservation
organization with over 5 million supporters around the world, cutting across 90
countries15. The WWF supports around 1300 conservation and environmental
projects world wide. It is purely a charity organization with 60% of its
finding coming from voluntary donations by private individuals. 45% of the
income of the WWF came from the US, Canada and the Netherlands. The stated
mission of the find is “to halt and reverse. The destruction of our
environment”.
Currently,
much of the work of the WWF focuser on the conservation of three biomes that
contain work of the world’s biodiversity: these are forests, freshwater
ecosystems and oceans and coasts. Among other issues, it is also concerned with
endangered protection of species, pollution, and climate change.
Historical origin: The
organization was formed as a charity trust in 1961 in Morges, Switzerland,
modern the name world wild life fund. The Brain behind the formation of the WWF
were Julian Huxley and Maxnicholson who had thirty big business interests
through the political and economic planning think tank.
The
WWF has offices and operations around the world. At first, the WWF focused on
fund raising, and providing grants to non-governmental organizations based on
the best available scientific knowledge and with an initial focus on the
protection of endangered species. As more resources become available, its
operations expanded into other areas such as the preservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of natural resources the reduction of pollution and
climate change. The organization also began to run its own conservation
projects and campaigns and by the 1980s started to take a move strategic approach to its
conservation activities. In 1986, the organization changed its have to the
world wide fund for nature, to better reflect the scope of its activities you
retained the acronym WWF. In the US and Canada in continued to operate under
the original name. in the 1990s, the WWF revised its mission to “stop the
degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which
humans live in harmony with nature”. This goal was to be achieved through:
1. Conserving
the world’s biological diversity.
2. Ensuring
that the use of removable natural resources is sustainable.
3. Promoting
the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.
WWF
scientists and many other researchers identified 238 eco regions that represent
the world’s most biologically outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine
habits, based on a world wide biodiversity analysis which the organization says
was the first of its kind. In the early 2005, the WWF’s work has focused on a
freshwater and marine habitat conservation, endangered specie conservation,
climate change and the elimination of the most toxic chemicals. In the words of
Peter Scott, “re shall not save all the should like to, but we shall save a
great deal move them if we had never tried17”
Current conservation activities: This WWF’s current strategy for
achieving its mission specifically focuses on restoring the population of 36
species or specie groups that are important for their ecosystems or to people.
these include elephants, tunas, whales, dolphins and porpoises, and big leaf
mahogany. The WWF is also concerned with conserving 35 globally important
eco-regions around the wild. These include the Artic, the Amazon rain forest,
the Congo Basin and the Coral Triangle. It also concentrates efforts on
reducing peoples’ ecological footprints in 6 areas. These are carbon emissions,
cropland, grazing land, fishing, forestry and water.
The
organization also marks on a number of global issues driving bio-diversity loss
and unsustainable use of natural resources. These include finance. Business
practices, laws and consumption choices.
The
WWF works with a large number of different groups to achieve its goals
including other NGOS, national governments, businesses, investment banks,
scientists, fishers, farmers and local communities. It also undertakes public
campaigns to influence decision makers and seeks to educate people on how to
live in a more environmentally friendly manner.
The
WWF collaborates with other environmental organizations and interests to
publish a wide range of article and
indexes in order to created an impact on human activities world wide. The
organization regularly publishers reports, fact sheets and other relevant
information documents on issues relating
to its activities. It works hand to create awareness and provide information to
policy formulations and decisions makers.
Criticisms of the WWF
1. Accused
by other environmental groups and campaigners off being too close to big
business. They argue that this closeness
have watered down the ferocity and objectivity necessary to carry out a
successful environmental campaign work. The WWF is largely seen by critics as a
conformist.
2. Most
of its big donors are the most environmental polluters especially the oil
companies. The argument here is, like the one mentioned above, that the WWF is
a collaborator in environmental degradation despite its other stated goals and
objectives.
PS the
former common wealth secretary general, Nigeria’s Emeka Anyaoku served as
president of the WWF from 2001-2010.
The
holy see (Sancta Sedes) is the Episcopal jurisdiction of the catholic church in
Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the pope. It is the
pre-environment Episcopal see of the catholic church, forming the central
government of the church. As such, diplomatically and in other spheres, the
holy see acts and speaks for the whole catholic church. It is also recognized
by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the
pope, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained.
The
sovereignty of the holy see has been recognized explicitly in many
international agreements and is particularly emphasized in article 2 of the
lateran treaty of February 11, 1929, in which Italy recognized the sovereignty
of the holy see in the international field as an inherent attribute of its
nature, in conformity with its tradition, and the requirements of its mission
in the world.
Although
it is often referred to by the ambiguous term, “the Vatican”, the holy see is
not the same entity as the Vatican city state which came into existence only in
1929, while the holy see dates back to early Christian times-the beginning of
Christendom. Ambassadors are officially accredited not to the Vatican city
state but to the holy see” and papal representatives to states and
international organizations are recognized as representatives to the holy see.
Not to the Vatican city state. In the words of Archbishop Jean-Lonis Tauran,
former Holy See’s secretary for relations with states “Vatican city is a
minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with
the minimum of territory36. All popes have resided in the area that
became Vatican city since 1377. the site was given to pope militates in 313 AD
by Emperor constant time.
While
all Episcopal sees are holy. The expression “holy see” is normally used in
international relations as a metonym as well as in canon laws of the catholic
church to refer to the see of Rome viewed as the central government of the
catholic church. The holy see as a legal person bears many similarities with
the crown in the legal secular Christian monarchies.
Organization
of the Holy See - The pope
is the supreme authority of the catholic church. He governs the church through
the Roman curia. The roman curia
consists of a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest
levels the curia consists of the secretariat of state, mine congregations,
three tribunals, eleven pontifical councils and seven pontifical commissions.
The secretariat of state. Under the cardinal secretary of state directs and
co-ordinates the curia. He is the equivalent of the prime minister of the Holy
See and acts also as the minister for foreign affairs. The secretariat of state
is the only body of the curia that is situated within Vatican city. The others
are located in buildings in different parts of Rome that have extraterritorial
rights similar to those of embassies. The cardinal secretary of state is the
second most powerful figure in the church hierarchy after the pontiff.
Among
the most active of the major curial institutions are the congregation for the
doctrine of the faith which oversees the doctrine of the catholic church the
congregation of Bishops which co-ordinates the appointment of Bishop world
wide, the congregation of the evangelization of peoples which oversees all
missionary activities and the pontifical council for justice and peace, which
deals with international peace and social issues outside the spiritual realm.
Three
tribunals are responsible for judicial powers:
1. The Sacra Rota is responsible for normal appeals, including
decrees for the mollification of marriages, with the apostolic signature being
the administrative court of appeal, and highest ecclesiastical court.
2. The
apostolic penitentiary is different from the above two. The AP deals with
contention issues such as absolutions, dispensation and indulgencies.
3. The prefecture for the economic affairs of the Holy See’s
co-ordinate the finances of the Holy See’s departments and supervises the
administration of all offices, whatever may be their degree of metonymy, that
manages these finances. The most important of these is the administration of
the patrimony of the Apostolic See.
The prefecture of the papal household is responsible for the
organization of the papal household, audiences and ceremonies. The Holy See
does not dissolve upon the death or resignation of a pope. Instead, it
operation under a different set of laws known as Seder Vacant. During this
interregnum, the heads of the Dicasteries of the roman Curia such as the
prefects of congregation lease to hold office. The only exceptions are the major
penitentiary who continues his important role responding absolutions and
dispensations and the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, who administers the
temporalities, i.e. (properties and finances) of the Holy See of St Peter
during this period. The government of the Holy See and therefore the Catholic
Church, then falls on the College of Cardinals. Canonlaw prohibits the college
and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the
government of the church during this period-until a new Pope is made.
States in International Law: The Holy See has been recognized, both in the state
practice and in the writings of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public
international law, with rights and duties analogous to those of states.
Although the Holy See, as distinct from the Vatican city state, does not
fulfill the long-established criteria in international law of statehood Vis
having a permanent population, a defined territory. A of stable government and
the capacity to enter into independent relations with other states37,
its possession of full legal personality in international law is shown by the
fact that it maintains diplomatic relations with 177 countries, that it is a
member state of various inter-governmental organizations, and that it
is….respected by the international community of sovereign states and treated as
a subject of international law having the capacity to engage in diplomatic
relations and to enter into binding agreements with one, several or many states
under international law that are largely geared to establishing and preserving
peace in the world…38 .
Diplomacy and Foreign
Relations:
Since the
medieval period. The Episcopal See of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign
entity. The Holy See maintains diplomatic relations with 178 sovereign states
and also with the EU and the sovereign military order of Malta. The Holy See
also have relations of a special character with the PLO.69 of the diplomatic
missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome. The See maintain 180
permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 74 are non residentials so that
many of its 106 concrete missions are accredited to two or more countries or
international organizations.
The
diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the secretary of state
headed by the cardinal secretary of state, through the section for relation
with states. There are 16 internationally recognized states which the Holy See
does not have relations with. These are Afghanistan, Bhutan, Brunei, Comoros,,
Laos, Malaysia, the Maldives, Mauritania, Myanmar, Tuvalu and Vietnam. The Holy
See is the only European subject of international law that has official
diplomatic relations with Taiwan. The Holy See is a member of various
international organizations and groups including the IAEA, the international
telecommunications union, OSCE, and the UNHCR. The Holy See is also a permanent
observer in various international organizations including the UN General
Assembly, Council of Europe, UNESCO, WHO and FAO.
The Lateran Treaty:
Lateran Treating is one of the Lateran
parts of 1929 made between the kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. It consisted
of three documents
1. A
political treating recognizing the full sovereignty of the Holy See in the
state of Vatican City which was thereby established. The Pope was pledged to
perpetual neutrality in international relations and abstention from mediation
in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties.
2. A
concordat regulating the position of the Catholic Church and the catholic
religion in the Italian state effectively establishing catholic as a state
religion in Italy.
3. A
financial convention was agreed upon as a definitive settlement of the claims
of the Holy See following the losses of its territories and properties with its
loss of temporal power in 1870. This settlement in effect created the modern
wealth of the church.
The
negotiation which began in 1926 culminated in the agreements of the three
Lateran accords mentioned above. He Accord was signed by Prime Minister, Benito
Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and by cardinal
Secretary of state, Pictro Gaspari for Pope Pius XI. The agreements were signed
in the Lateran Palace hence the name by which they are known. The treating also
ended the “Prisoner in the Vatican” states of the Popes between 1870 and 1926.
Despite
the loss of its temporal powers, and the Lateran treat which restricts its
interference in non-spiritual matters, the Holy See has remained a potent
force, albeit moral one, in global affairs. As the spiritual leader of close to
a quarter of the world population, the Pope, no doubt, wields enormous power.
He is briefed on major issues and events that affect the world on a daily
baries and some of these he reacts to, others he does not. Again the
involvement of the Holy See in political issues is largely determined by the
character and personality of the Pope, his perception of his mission on earth
and the direction in which he desired to take the church at a particular point
in history.
The
present concerns of the Holy See include religions freedom, international
development, the environment, the middle cast, China and Taiwan, terrorison,
the decline of religion in Europe, inter-religious dialogue, reconciliation and
tolerance and the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change and
globalization.