The Upper Basic Education Curriculum on Business Studies is a reform in the Nigerian Educational System because of its wide scope (Nwafor, 2007). Business Studies is a prevocational elective subject at the upper basic education level which mainly aims at skills acquisition. It is crucial that adequate provision be made in terms of human and material resources in order to promote saleable skills acquisition and employment generation possibilities (FRN, 2007).
Since the quality of teachers determine
the effectiveness of curriculum implementation, the education system, according
to Mkandawire (2010), needs adequately trained and motivated teachers in order
to succeed. On the premise of these facts, this work is anchored on theories of
skills acquisition, science T.R.E.E models, expectancy theory, equity theory
and theory of constructivism. These theories and models are explained below.
Theories of Skills Acquisition
According to Ewuga (2010) an
understanding of the process by which psychomotor skills are acquired is a
basic condition for effective training and development in vocational and
technical education. He opines that the studies of such scientists as Singer
(1972), Gow (1976), Shemick (1977), Gall (1981), Padelford (1984) and Hammond
and Lamar (1988) in the theories of skills acquisition have culminated into
what today has come to be known as the six levels or steps of psychomotor
skills acquisition. These levels or steps, according to him, are perceiving,
motivating, imitating, performing, adapting and innovating. Each of these
levels is hereby analyzed to show how it is involved in the process of
acquiring psychomotor skills in vocational and technical education.
Perceiving
The first step in the process of
acquiring psychomotor skills is to perceive wanted skills or desired action.
For instance, when a toy for a baby to play with is seen, felt or heard, it
attracts the baby’s attention and curiosity. Describing the development of
visually guided reaching in baby, Bruner in Ewuga (2010) states that an
appropriate free standing object, of appropriate size and structure and at an
appropriate distance first produces prolong looking and, then visually guided
reaching develops. Reaching for the object is acquired psychomotor skill and
learning to reach the perceived object initiates the action.
With respect to the teaching of
psychomotor skills, in vocational and technical education (business education
inclusive), Hammond and Lamar in Ewuga (2010) stress that the trainer should
develop in the trainees a strong desire to possess the manipulative ability. He
should be genuinely interested in their skillful performance. It may be
necessary for the trainees to see a product that has been produced by a skilled
person or, see the skilled performance in progress. The trainees must know why
the skill is needed if they are to want to possess it and they must feel the
need for that ability. Ewuga (2010) believes that the four levels of Moore’s taxonomy of
perception (sensation, figure perception, symbol perception and perception of
meaning) are utilized in determining exactly what is expected of the trainee of
a psychomotor skill.
Motivating
According to Ewuga (2010),
motivation is of crucial importance to the process of acquiring psychomotor
skills. It resolves what psychomotor skills the learner will partake of or wish
to learn as well as whether or not there will be any participation at all in
the activity. Describing psychomotor skill acquisition, Pope and Singer (1978)
indicates that setting goals and/or solving problem must be the first step in
creating motivation in the learner or trainee. Initial arousal of an intention
seems to be a pre-requisite which operates as a trigger for further action.
There are indications that engaging in an activity and practicing have meaning
only when the learner shows an appropriate indication of motivation. Reacting
to this view, Padelford in Ewuga (2010) opines that motivation seems to be the activator
and sustainer of action or thought when acquiring a psychomotor skill in
vocational and technical education.
Goals are an essential part of the process of
acquiring psychomotor skill which may be externally directed by another person
or internally directed or both. According to Gagne in Ewuga (2010), various
kinds of external stimulation and positive internal feedback make possible a
high level of achievement in psychomotor skills. Both internal and external
sources of motivation should be employed in teaching and learning vocational
and technical subjects.
Imitating
Imitating is the stage where the
learner is involved in mental manipulation of the form, pattern, or sequence
and or mimicking a series of events, patterns or procedures (Ewuga, 2010). The
role of the learner, according to Summers in Ewuga (2010) is to first combine
the appropriate movements into correct sequence or order. Gagne in Ewuga (2010)
argues that learning the sequence requires cognition. Therefore in psychomotor
skill acquisition in vocational and technical education, the learner receives
the necessary cues, mentally manipulates the cues and organizes them in a
series of sets before attempting to perform a function.
In the light of the above, Newell in
Ewuga (2010) recommends that before embarking on any action, the performer
ideally should have knowledge about the goal of the act, together with some
understanding of the steps through which the goal can be accomplished. The
performer needs to know what to do and how to do it. As a practical way of
assisting students to imitate, Gall in Ewuga (2010) advises that the teacher
should ask the student to name the important steps in doing what they want to
learn to do. The teacher should demonstrate the procedure for students to watch
and, then try their hands at doing it. Knowledge alone cannot develop a
manipulative skill, performing the operation is necessary.
Performing
According to Padelford in Ewuga
(2010), practice is the movement of the body according to the pattern the mind
has organized. The learner engages in repeated practice following the
internalization of the mental picture of the steps or sequence required by the
performer. Ewuga (2010) observes that Singer (1972), Gagne (1977), and Anyim
(2002) point to the fact that practice is a necessary pre-requisite for
learning a task and learning is a process with an increase in the amount of
practice. Students of vocational and technical education need to be given
enough opportunities to practice what they are taught.
Usually, learners will need to
develop considerable skill before using the operation on a large scale or on a
valuable or otherwise important piece of work. According to Ewuga (2010), to
develop this degree of skill, repeated practice exercises, which involves
various operations and standards of workmanship, may be used. Lombard and Stern
in Ewuga (2010) find that in teaching a motor skill, the amount of experience
with the actual task itself is critically variable.
Adapting
Padelford in Ewuga (2010) recommends
that certain psychomotor skills should be adaptable to new situations (a sort
of transfer of learner). Adapting, according to him, involves diagnosing and
problem solving, and the added dimension of creativity. Teachers should
emphasize adaptive learning because transfer of learning is often required in
problem solving situation which is a typical characteristic of the productive
or service world.
According to Schmit in Ewuga (2010),
intra-tasks transfer is concerned with transfer from one variation of a task to
another, such as from operating a manual typewriter to operating an electric
typewriter. The teacher should expose the learner to both inter-task and
intra-task experiences because they contribute to a maximum degree of positive
transfer when attempting new problems or activities.
Innovating
Innovation, according to Ewuga
(2010), is the highest level of psychomotor skill acquisition in vocational and
technical education. It emphasizes the ability to experiment and create new
forms of the learned skill. Pope and Singer (1978) stress that the opportunity
to express feelings and to gain a feeling of self-actualization are inherent in
the innovative act. Innovation presents a challenge and an opportunity for
fulfillment and positive self-concept.
Science T. R. E. E. Models
T. R. E. E. is an acronym for
Teachers Reaching Educational Excellence. Science T. R. E. E. therefore, is a programme for science teachers
in the North Central Region of America aimed at striking excellence (Pattison
and Berkas, 2000). These authors Describe Science T.R.E.E. models as an
instructional design tool from the North Central Mathematics and Science
Consortium. According to Pattison and Berkas (2000), science T. R. E. E
design-team members (including teachers) developed the templates to be easily
adapted to other content areas to address a broader context of curriculum
design. This implies that although these models are science based, they can
easily be modified for any content area. Pattison and Berkas (2000) affirm that
one way to foster the curriculum development process is to use the five Science
T. R. E. E. models.
The five Science T. R. E. E models according to
Pattison and Berkas (2000) are:
Model 1 (Apple Template). This model focuses on engaged learning. It also
brings in the use of available technology to prepare students for the future.
Model II (Giant Sequoia Template). This model emphasizes learner-centered education. It
presents questions that are posed to keep students involved in the planning and
implementation of the curriculum.
Model III (Maple Template). This model is based on research. It emphasizes
building and sequencing activities, units, and curricula to explore unifying
themes and concepts.
Model IV (Pine Template). This model has an up front focus on assessment. Its
first step enables teachers to decide what students are to learn and how
students will demonstrate what they have learned. Then attention turns to how
to achieve the desired results.
Model V (Oak Template). This model is the most comprehensive in guiding
teachers through a step-by step process of curriculum development. Guiding
questions help teachers determine what they want to teach, how to provide the
best learning opportunities for students, how to manage the learning environment,
and how to determine what students have learned.
These five models, according to
Pattison and Berkas (2000), incorporate current learning research and provide
opportunities for teacher reflection. The reflection component allows teachers
to record and analyze the educational strategies that worked and the changes to
be made in the classroom.
Doll (2002) believes that science T.R.E.E. can easily
be adapted to the teaching of technical and vocational subjects. He explains
that the essence of skill acquisition lies in the use of available technology,
involvement of students, building and sequencing activities to explore unifying
themes, deciding what students are to learn and how students will demonstrate
what they have leaned and how students will demonstrate what they have learned.
He asserts that these involve material and human resources.
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom,)
Expectancy theory is a motivation
theory propounded by Victor Vroom in 1964 (Nnamdi, 2011). This theory stands
out among other theories. Expectancy theory holds that the behaviour of an
individual is a function of the individual’s perception of reality (how the
individual sees the world around him) rather than the individual’s need or
motives. This theorist believes that one’s motivation toward an action is a
function of one’s anticipated values of the outcome of that action and the
strength of one’s belief (expectancy) that the outcome will yield the desired
goal. This implies that whether or not a person takes action will depend on two
factors: value attached to the likely result (Valence); and the level of expectancy that
the action will actually lead to the result (Expectancy).
The theorist (Victor Vroom) derived
the formula of motivation as: Force = Valence X Expectancy, where force stands
as the strength of a person’s motivation, and valence and expectancy as earlier on explained. For instance,
assuming UBEB wishes to send business studies teachers to in-service training
every five years; whether or not a
teacher stays in the job depends on: how much value the teacher attaches to the
training (valence); and the extent to which the teacher believes that staying
will actually result to the in-service training.
While motivating workers on the basis of expectancy
theory, the three important steps to be considered are: determination of what
the worker needs; careful selection of the rewards that will satisfy these
needs; and tying the rewards to some objectives of the organization so as to
ensure that the rewards result from performance. This theory shows that workers
can effectively be rewarded by money because they greatly value money as a
reward.
The crux of expectancy theory lies on what a worker
gets from job and the value the worker attaches to it. According to Ewuga
(2010) valuable results lead to retention of employees. This implies that
qualified business studies teachers could be retained if they get valuable
results from heir labour.
Equity Theory (John Stacey Adam, 1963)
Equity theory is a theory on
motivation (propounded by John Stacey Adam in 1963) which states that a major
factor in job motivation, performance and satisfaction is the individual
evaluation of the equity or fairness of the reward received (Nnamdi, 2011).
Equity in this theory means the ratio between an individual’s job input (effort
or skill) and job rewards (pay, promotion etc.) compared with the rewards
others receive for similar job inputs. The belief is that people value fair
treatment and would always be positively motivated when they feel that they are
treated equitably.
Equity theory holds that people’s
motivation, performance and satisfaction depend on their subjective evaluation
of the relationship between their effort/reward ratio and the effort/reward
ratio of others in similar situations. Since money is a basis for comparison,
people compare what they receive for their efforts with what others receive in
similar situations. When they feel inequity exists, tension develops and
finally leads to behaviour adjustment.
Emenanjo (1992) observes that availability of teachers
is affected by how equitably they are treated. He regrets that dearth of teachers is worsened
by inappropriate placement. The implication of this theory is that, attrition
of business studies teachers will be a thing of the past if they receive
equitable treatment with their counterparts in other walks of life.
Constructivism Theory
According to Doll (2002), the basis
for current interest in constructivism is found in the works of Dewey, Vygotsky,
and Piaget. Similarly, Eisner (2004)
states that more recent theorists, practitioners, and subject matter
specialists (like Bodrova and Leong, 1996; Brooks and Brooks, 1993;
Dixon-Krauss, 1996; Fosnet, 1989) have refined and expanded upon these early
ideas. The theoretical and philosophical bases of constructivism are complex
and comprise the following important elements:
1. Learning
is seen as an active, problem solving process in which the learner builds upon
prior understanding to construct new knowledge through interaction with their
environment (Doll, 2002). Piaget (1952) stresses that knowledge and cognitive
structures are actively constructed by learners through the learner’s actions
both concrete and mental. The Piagetian view of learning is a process of
construction rather than absortion and accumulation of information.
2. According
to Burk and Dunn in Marsh and Willis (2003), constructivists view autonomy as
the aim of education. Autonomy is the ability to govern oneself and take
responsibility for one’s decisions.
3. Anderson and Piazza in
Marsh and Willis (2003) state that learning is structured around primary
concepts and these concepts are integrated into a large concept which provides
a context in which the learning of individual skills takes place.
4. Constructivists
believe that what students learn depends, to a great degree, upon the context
in which they learn it. This means that knowledge is structured in the
activity, context, and culture in which it was developed. When students learn
in the context of meaningful activities, they are more likely to use
information as a tool to solve problems.
5. The
constructivist learning philosophy emphasizes experiences as its subject
matter. Subject matter is not perceived as an established body of knowledge.
Knowledge about teaching and learning is constructed and reconstructed through
the reflective analysis of experiences.
6. The
role of the teacher is that of a facilitator of student knowledge construction,
thus, classrooms must be re-organized to allow students to interact with the
teacher and with one another.
7. Competency
and its application to performance and assessment of appropriate tasks must be
considered in contexts. A major goal of instruction is to provide settings in
which all learners have an opportunity to engage in relevant and authentic
activities to explore complex problems through interaction with teachers and
peers in the classroom, as well as in the larger community.
Constructivists believe that
students learn in the context of meaningful activities. When teaching and
learning is perceived as construction and reconstruction of knowledge through
reflective analysis of experiences, information gathered becomes a tool for
problem solving. Constructivism, when it forms the basis of Business Studies,
makes the subject an important tool for the preparation of the individual for
useful living within the society (Onuo and Shabi, 2008). This theory is important
because according to Eze (2008), Business Studies primarily targets at
providing students with the training that will make them ready for the world of work.
REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES
A lot of empirical studies have been
carried out on human and material resources for the implementation of curricula
programmes. Azih (2008) carried out an appraisal of teachers and teaching
facilities for teaching business studies in secondary schools in Abakaliki
Urban. A sample of 108 respondents drawn from six secondary schools randomly
selected from the fifteen secondary schools in the area was used. A four point
likert scale questionnaire was used to collect the data which were analyzed
using mean as a statistical tool. The result of this study indicated that most
of the schools are not equipped with sufficient facilities needed for teaching
Business Studies; available equipment and facilities are not optimally
utilized; and most of the teachers teaching Business Studies are ill- equipped.
The researcher recommended that: required teaching facilities and equipment be
provided for all the schools offering Business Studies; existing facilities and
equipment be optimally utilized; graduates of Business Studies be recruited to
teach the subject; and workshops, seminars and conferences be organized
periodically to keep business studies teacher abreast of current trends.
Ugwanyi and Eze (2008) conducted an
assessment of the educational resources available for implementing the mandates
of secretarial studies programme in Nigerian Polytechnics. The study was
delimited to the assessment of the adequacy of educational resources available
for training secretaries in the polytechnics located in Kogi and Benue states. Due to the smallness of the population, all
the 33 business educators who teach in the polytechnics located in Kogi and Benue states were used in the study. A 33-item structured
questionnaire on a 5-point rating scale was used to collect data. The four
research questions were answered using the mean on the 5-point rating scale
while the t-test statistical tool was used to test the two null hypotheses.
These researchers found that: instructional facilities like classrooms,
laboratories, furnished staff offices, typist desks and chairs, stand-by
generators, etc are fairly adequate in the polytechnics; the major equipment
needed to be installed in the secretarial laboratories are not adequate;
financial resources allocated to secretarial studies progrmme in the
polytechnics are not adequate; and adequate personnel are available but ICT
complaint lecturers are not adequate. This study recommended the retraining of
business educators on ICT technologies and adequate funding of the programme in
order to ensure adequate provision of facilities and equipment.
Olalere (2007) surveyed the effects
of teacher factor on students academic achievement in Mathematics among senior
secondary school (SSS) students in Osun
State. The population of
this study comprised all mathematics teachers and all SSS 2 students in all the
public secondary schools in Osun
State. 40 mathematics
teachers and 200 SSS 2 students were randomly selected from randomly selected
25 public secondary schools. Three different sets of structured questionnaires
were personally administered on the respondents by the researcher. ANOVA
statistical tool was used to test the hypotheses. The findings of this study
are: that teachers’ professional qualification is the most potent contributor
to students academic achievement; and that other contributors in their ranking
comprise teachers’ attitude to the teaching of the subject, teachers’ workload
and then teachers’ years of experience. This work also found that teachers’
gender does not make significant contribution to students’ academic achievement
in the subject. Again the researcher found that attendance at seminar and
workshops make significant contributions to the explanation of variance in students’
academic performance.
Adeyemi (2007) carried out a
research on demand and supply of qualified teaching manpower in secondary
schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. This researcher used the
170 secondary schools in Ekiti
State administering two
types of inventories. Data collected were analyzed with percentages. The
results of this study were that: there are still many unqualified teachers in
the schools; there is tremendous growth in students’ enrolment; the supplies of
qualified teachers do not match the demand.
Olayiwola (2004) conducted an
experimental research on factors affecting the effective teaching of Islamic
studies in post primary schools in Ilorin
metropolis. This study used a sample of 50 students applying a pre-test and
post –test. Instruments utilized for data collection were verbal interview and
a 4- scale questionnaire. These instruments were administered by the
investigator in person. Data collected were analyzed using simple percentages.
The result of this study attributed the failure of UBE to many factors among
which human resources (teachers) ranked first and material resources second.
Okonkwo (2004) carried out an
exploratory analysis of the implementation of modular curriculum in technical
colleges in the South-East of Nigeria.
Due to the affordability of the population, all the 189 technical teachers and
30 school administrators in the area giving a total of 219 teachers formed the
sample. This survey used a 4 scale rating questionnaire. Percentages, mean and
standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test
statistics was used in testing the one and only hypothesis at 0.05 level of
significance. This work made the following findings: (a) technical colleges are
understaffed in the four states studied in terms of qualified vocational/
technical staff for the implementation of the modular curriculum; (b)
inadequate infrastructure and other facilities available do not even satisfy
the minimum NBTE standard implying that the right competencies and knowledge required
for employment and for further education may not be realized;(c) Teachers found
the curriculum content too wide to cover within scheduled time and as such,
they skip areas they consider unimportant; and (d) the practical sessions
carried out by teachers are effective only to the extent that tools, equipment
and other facilities are available.
Jamiu (2005) surveyed the effect of
instructional materials on teaching and learning of economics in secondary
schools in Akoko North East L. G. A. of Ondo State.
This study used a sample of 150 students randomly selected from five randomly
selected secondary schools in the area. Structured questionnaire, administered
by the researcher (in person) was used for data collection. Chi-square
statistical method was used to test the hypotheses which resulted that:
instructional materials affect teaching and learning of the subject; and
library is a good source of instructional materials.
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
This review has clearly highlighted
Business Studies as a prevocational subject introduced at the upper basic
education level to enable students acquire basic knowledge and skills of
Business Studies and office occupation for paid employment, personal business
or further education. Business Studies has a serious mandate at the basic
education level because, UBE is an education reform which vision is that every
child should acquire appropriate and relevant skills and values and be
employable in order to contribute to national development. Primary and junior secondary
schools curricula have been restructured to meet the target of the 9-year basic
education in the context of NEEDS and MDGs. Adequate provision of human and
material resources are required to be made in order to promote acquisition of
saleable skills and employment generation possibilities. It has been affirmed
that schools in rural areas get little support and inadequate personnel in
contrast with their urban counterparts.
Theories that are relevant to the
study are reviewed. Theories of skills acquisition which yielded to the six
steps of psychomotor skill acquisition are reviewed. Science T. R. E. E. models
talk of using the available teaching technology, learner-centered education,
exploration in learning, students’ demonstration of learning and step-by-step
curriculum development. Expectancy and equity (motivation) theories are
reviewed. While expectancy theory sees motivation as a function of valence and
expectancy, equity theory sees it as the evaluation of the fairness of the
reward received. Then constructivism theory shows that learning is an active
problem solving process.
Adequacy of professional teachers is
the most potent factor of curriculum implementation and since Business Studies
is a practical subject, it should be taught practically using necessary
instructional materials. The empirical studies reviewed show that schools are
understaffed, in terms of quality and quantity of teachers, and ill-equipped
for the implementation of the UBE curriculum.
To the best of the knowledge of the
researcher, no study has been carried out in Ebonyi State
on human and material resources for the implementation of the upper basic
education curriculum on Business Studies. This is exactly the gap this study
aims at filling.