The Upper Basic Education Curriculum on Business Studies
is a reform in the Nigerian Educational System because of its wide scope
(Nwafor, 2007). Business Studies is a prevocational elective subject at the
upper basic education level which mainly aims at skills acquisition. It is crucial
that adequate provision be made in terms of human and material resources in
order to promote saleable skills acquisition and employment generation
possibilities (FRN, 2007).
Since the quality of teachers determine the
effectiveness of curriculum implementation, the education system, according to
Mkandawire (2010), needs adequately trained and motivated teachers in order to
succeed. On the premise of these facts, this work is anchored on theories of
skills acquisition, expectancy theory, equity theory and theory of
constructivism. These theories and models are explained below.
Theories
of Skills Acquisition Psychomotor skills Acquisition Theories
According to Ewuga (2010) an
understanding of the process by which psychomotor skills are acquired is a basic
condition for effective training and development in vocational and technical
education. He opines that the studies of such scientists as Singer (1972), Gow
(1976), Shemick (1977), Gall (1981), Padelford (1984) and Hammond and Lamar
(1988) in the theories of skills acquisition have culminated into what today
has come to be known as the six levels or steps of psychomotor skills
acquisition. These levels or steps, according to him, are perceiving,
motivating, imitating, performing, adapting and innovating. Each of these
levels is hereby analyzed to show how it is involved in the process of
acquiring psychomotor skills in vocational and technical education.
Perceiving
The first step in the process of
acquiring psychomotor skills is to perceive wanted skills or desired action.
For instance, when a toy for a baby to play with is seen, felt or heard, it
attracts the baby’s attention and curiosity. Describing the development of
visually guided reaching in baby, Bruner in Ewuga (2010) states that an
appropriate free standing object, of appropriate size and structure and at an
appropriate distance first produces prolong looking and, then visually guided
reaching develops. Reaching for the object is acquired psychomotor skill and
learning to reach the perceived object initiates the action.
With respect to the teaching of
psychomotor skills, in vocational and technical education (business education
inclusive), Hammond and Lamar in Ewuga (2010) stress that the trainer should
develop in the trainees a strong desire to possess the manipulative ability. He
should be genuinely interested in their skillful performance. It may be
necessary for the trainees to see a product that has been produced by a skilled
person or, see the skilled performance in progress. The trainees must know why
the skill is needed if they are to want to possess it and they must feel the
need for that ability. Ewuga (2010) believes that the four levels of Moore’s taxonomy
of perception (sensation, figure perception, symbol perception and perception
of meaning) are utilized in determining exactly what is expected of the trainee
of a psychomotor skill.
Motivation
According to Ewuga (2010),
motivation is of crucial importance to the process of acquiring psychomotor
skills. It resolves what psychomotor skills the learner will partake of or wish
to learn as well as whether or not there will be any participation at all in
the activity. Describing psychomotor skill acquisition, Pope and Singer (1978)
indicate that setting goals and/or solving problem must be the first step in
creating motivation in the learner or trainee. Initial arousal of an intention
seems to be a pre-requisite which operates as a trigger for further action.
There are indications that engaging in an activity and practicing have meaning
only when the learner shows an appropriate indication of motivation. Reacting
to this view, Padelford in Ewuga (2010) opines that motivation seems to be the
activator and sustainer of action or thought when acquiring a psychomotor skill
in vocational and technical education.
Goals are an essential part of the process of
acquiring psychomotor skill which may be externally directed by another person
or internally directed or both. According to Gagne in Ewuga (2010), various
kinds of external stimulation and positive internal feedback make possible a
high level of achievement in psychomotor skills. Both internal and external
sources of motivation should be employed in teaching and learning vocational
and technical subjects.
Imitating
Imitating is the stage where the
learner is involved in mental manipulation of the form, pattern, or sequence
and or mimicking a series of events, patterns or procedures (Ewuga, 2010). The
role of the learner, according to Summers in Ewuga (2010) is to first combine
the appropriate movements into correct sequence or order. Gagne in Ewuga (2010)
argues that learning the sequence requires cognition. Therefore in psychomotor
skill acquisition in vocational and technical education, the learner receives
the necessary cues, mentally manipulates the cues and organizes them in a
series of sets before attempting to perform a function.
In the light of the above, Newell in
Ewuga (2010) recommends that before embarking on any action, the performer
ideally should have knowledge about the goal of the act, together with some
understanding of the steps through which the goal can be accomplished. The
performer needs to know what to do and how to do it. As a practical way of
assisting students to imitate, Gall in Ewuga (2010) advises that the teacher
should ask the student to name the important steps in doing what they want to
learn to do. The teacher should demonstrate the procedure for students to watch
and, then try their hands at doing it. Knowledge alone cannot develop a
manipulative skill, performing the operation is necessary.
Performing
According to Padelford in Ewuga
(2010), practice is the movement of the body according to the pattern the mind
has organized. The learner engages in repeated practice following the
internalization of the mental picture of the steps or sequence required by the
performer. Ewuga (2010) observes that Singer (1972), Gagne (1977), and Anyim
(2002) point to the fact that practice is a necessary pre-requisite for
learning a task and learning is a process with an increase in the amount of
practice. Students of vocational and technical education need to be given
enough opportunities to practice what they are taught.
Usually, learners will need to
develop considerable skill before using the operation on a large scale or on a
valuable or otherwise important piece of work. According to Ewuga (2010), to
develop this degree of skill, repeated practice exercises, which involves
various operations and standards of workmanship, may be used. Lombard and Stern
in Ewuga (2010) find that in teaching a motor skill, the amount of experience
with the actual task itself is critically variable.
Adapting
Padelford in Ewuga (2010) recommends
that certain psychomotor skills should be adaptable to new situations (a sort
of transfer of learner). Adapting, according to him, involves diagnosing and
problem solving, and the added dimension of creativity. Teachers should
emphasize adaptive learning because transfer of learning is often required in a
problem solving situation which is a typical characteristic of the productive
or service world.
According to Schmit in Ewuga (2010),
intra-tasks transfer is concerned with transfer from one variation of a task to
another, such as from operating a manual typewriter to operating an electric
typewriter. The teacher should expose the learner to both inter-task and
intra-task experiences because they contribute to a maximum degree of positive
transfer when attempting new problems or activities.
Innovating
Innovation, according to Ewuga
(2010), is the highest level of psychomotor skill acquisition in vocational and
technical education. It emphasizes the ability to experiment and create new
forms of the learned skill. Pope and Singer (1978) stress that the opportunity
to express feelings and to gain a feeling of self-actualization are inherent in
the innovative act. Innovation presents a challenge and an opportunity for
fulfillment and positive self-concept.
Science
T. R. E. E. Models
T. R. E. E. is an acronym for
Teachers Reaching Educational Excellence. Science T. R. E. E. therefore, is a programme for science
teachers in the North Central Region of America aimed at striking excellence
(Pattison and Berkas, 2000). These authors Describe Science T.R.E.E. models as
an instructional design tool from the North Central Mathematics and Science
Consortium. According to Pattison and Berkas (2000), science T. R. E. E
design-team members (including teachers) developed the templates to be easily
adapted to other content areas to address a broader context of curriculum
design. This implies that although these models are science based, they can
easily be modified for any content area. Pattison and Berkas (2000) affirm that
one way to foster the curriculum development process is to use the five Science
T. R. E. E. models.
The five Science T. R. E. E models according to
Pattison and Berkas (2000) are:
Model
1 (Apple Template). This model focuses on engaged learning. It also brings in
the use of available technology to prepare students for the future.
Model
II (Giant Sequoia Template). This model emphasizes learner-centered education.
It presents questions that are posed to keep students involved in the planning
and implementation of the curriculum.
Model
III (Maple Template). This model is based on research. It emphasizes building
and sequencing activities, units, and curricula to explore unifying themes and
concepts.
Model
IV (Pine Template). This model has an up front focus on assessment. Its first
step enables teachers to decide what students are to learn and how students
will demonstrate what they have learned. Then attention turns to how to achieve
the desired results.
Model
V (Oak Template). This model is the most comprehensive in guiding teachers
through a step-by step process of curriculum development. Guiding questions
help teachers determine what they want to teach, how to provide the best
learning opportunities for students, how to manage the learning environment,
and how to determine what students have learned.
These five models, according to
Pattison and Berkas (2000), incorporate current learning research and provide
opportunities for teacher reflection. The reflection component allows teachers
to record and analyze the educational strategies that worked and the changes to
be made in the classroom.
Doll (2002) believes that science T.R.E.E. can easily
be adapted to the teaching of technical and vocational subjects. He explains
that the essence of skill acquisition lies in the use of available technology,
involvement of students, building and sequencing activities to explore unifying
themes, deciding what students are to learn and how students will demonstrate
what they have leaned. He asserts that these involve material and human
resources.
Expectancy
Theory (Victor Vroom,)
Expectancy theory is a motivation theory
propounded by Victor Vroom in 1964 (Nnamdi, 2011). This theory stands out among
other theories. Expectancy theory holds that the behaviour of an individual is
a function of the individual’s perception of reality (how the individual sees
the world around him) rather than the individual’s need or motives. This
theorist believes that one’s motivation toward an action is a function of one’s
anticipated values of the outcome of that action and the strength of one’s
belief (expectancy) that the outcome will yield the desired goal. This implies
that whether or not a person takes action will depend on two factors: value
attached to the likely result (Valence); and the level of expectancy that the
action will actually lead to the result (Expectancy).
The theorist (Victor Vroom) derived
the formula of motivation as: Force = Valence X Expectancy, where force stands
as the strength of a person’s motivation, and valence and expectancy as earlier on explained. For instance, assuming
UBEB wishes to send business studies teachers to in-service training every five
years; whether or not a teacher stays in
the job depends on: how much value the teacher attaches to the training
(valence); and the extent to which the teacher believes that staying will
actually result to the in-service training.
While motivating workers on the basis of expectancy
theory, the three important steps to be considered are: determination of what
the worker needs; careful selection of the rewards that will satisfy these
needs; and tying the rewards to some objectives of the organization so as to
ensure that the rewards result from performance. This theory shows that workers
can effectively be rewarded by money because they greatly value money as a
reward.
The crux of expectancy theory lies on what a worker
gets from job and the value the worker attaches to it. According to Ewuga
(2010) valuable results lead to retention of employees. This implies that
qualified business studies teachers could be retained if they get valuable
results from their labour.
Equity
Theory (John Stacey Adam, 1963)
Equity theory is a theory on
motivation (propounded by John Stacey Adam in 1963) which states that a major
factor in job motivation, performance and satisfaction is the individual
evaluation of the equity or fairness of the reward received (Nnamdi, 2011).
Equity in this theory means the ratio between an individual’s job input (effort
or skill) and job rewards (pay, promotion etc.) compared with the rewards
others receive for similar job inputs. The belief is that people value fair
treatment and would always be positively motivated when they feel that they are
treated equitably.
Equity theory holds that people’s
motivation, performance and satisfaction depend on their subjective evaluation
of the relationship between their effort/reward ratio and the effort/reward
ratio of others in similar situations. Since money is a basis for comparison,
people compare what they receive for their efforts with what others receive in
similar situations. When they feel inequity exists, tension develops and
finally leads to behaviour adjustment.
Emenanjo (1992) observes that
availability of teachers is affected by how equitably they are treated. He regrets that dearth of teachers is worsened
by inappropriate placement. The implication of this theory is that, attrition
of business studies teachers will be a thing of the past if they receive
equitable treatment with their counterparts in other walks of life.
Constructivism
Theory
According to Doll (2002), the basis
for current interest in constructivism is found in the works of Dewey, Vygotsky,
and Piaget. Similarly, Eisner (2004)
states that more recent theorists, practitioners, and subject matter
specialists (like Bodrova and Leong, 1996; Brooks and Brooks, 1993;
Dixon-Krauss, 1996; Fosnet, 1989) have refined and expanded upon these early
ideas. The theoretical and philosophical bases of constructivism are complex
and comprise the following important elements:
1. Learning
is seen as an active, problem solving process in which the learner builds upon
prior understanding to construct new knowledge through interaction with their
environment (Doll, 2002). Piaget (1952) stresses that knowledge and cognitive
structures are actively constructed by learners through the learner’s actions
both concrete and mental. The Piagetian view of learning is a process of
construction rather than absortion and accumulation of information.
2. According
to Burk and Dunn in Marsh and Willis (2003), constructivists view autonomy as
the aim of education. Autonomy is the ability to govern oneself and take
responsibility for one’s decisions.
3. Anderson
and Piazza in Marsh and Willis (2003) state that learning is structured around
primary concepts and these concepts are integrated into a large concept which
provides a context in which the learning of individual skills takes place.
4. Constructivists
believe that what students learn depends, to a great degree, upon the context
in which they learn it. This means that knowledge is structured in the
activity, context, and culture in which it was developed. When students learn
in the context of meaningful activities, they are more likely to use
information as a tool to solve problems.
5. The
constructivist learning philosophy emphasizes experiences as its subject
matter. Subject matter is not perceived as an established body of knowledge.
Knowledge about teaching and learning is constructed and reconstructed through
the reflective analysis of experiences.
6. The
role of the teacher is that of a facilitator of student knowledge construction,
thus, classrooms must be re-organized to allow students to interact with the
teacher and with one another.
7. Competency
and its application to performance and assessment of appropriate tasks must be
considered in contexts. A major goal of instruction is to provide settings in
which all learners have an opportunity to engage in relevant and authentic
activities to explore complex problems through interaction with teachers and
peers in the classroom, as well as in the larger community.
Constructivists believe that
students learn in the context of meaningful activities. When teaching and
learning is perceived as construction and reconstruction of knowledge through
reflective analysis of experiences, information gathered becomes a tool for problem
solving. Constructivism, when it forms the basis of Business Studies, makes the
subject an important tool for the preparation of the individual for useful
living within the society (Onuo and Shabi, 2008). This theory is important
because according to Eze (2008), Business Studies primarily targets at
providing students with the training that will make them ready for the world of work.
These theories actually provide a
framework for this study. Effective implementation of the upper basic education
business studies curriculum is synonymous with psychomotor skills acquisition
which has been adjudged to require adequate human and material resources.
Similarly, expectancy and equity theories address retention of teachers by
ensuring that they get valuable reward from their labour and equitable
treatment constructivism theory holds that learning is done in the context of
meaningful activities. Since these activities are not done in a vacuum, they
require adequate human and material resources which form the basis of this
study.