Strategies for Facilitating Retention
Psychologists such as Unachukwu
(1989), Chauhan (1978) and Cliford (1981) have suggested some strategies which
classroom teachers should adopt to facilitate retention of learned materials by
pupils. These are as follows:
1. Over
learning: If a subject matter is
well learned, retention is enhanced. Over learning is a term used to describe
practice that continues after a perfect recall has been scored (Unachukwu 1989).
To improve retention, over learning is essential.
To enhance over learning teachers
should provide learners opportunity to practice the activity with materials. In
this way what is learned becomes part of the learner. Experiential learning
provides a perfect opportunity for over learning to take place, since it
involves pupils practice what they learn in order to discover facts and confirm
or refute laws and principles.
2. Meaningfulness
and Organization of subject matter
According
to Unachukwu (1989), retention is enhanced if materials are made to reflect
things that learners can easily come in contact, or things that affect learners
in real life. It is also necessary that materials are simple, sequential and
logical. This is very essential in teaching science in basic school. Abstract
concepts must be demonstrated with concrete objects, while teaching proceeds
from simple to complex ideas. This will enhance the flow of ideas. For example,
the knowledge of air will facilitate the learning about wind. This will be
achieved through the adoption of experiential learning method in instructional
delivery. This is because the method emphasizes learner’s previous experience,
sequential progression from known to unknown, learners’ active participation
and the use of authentic concrete objects are essential in instructional
delivery.
3.
Association
Learning is retained more if what is learned
is associated to a concept that is well known to learners. This is in
conformity with the stimulus response (S-R) theory which says that learning is
associative. (Unachukwu1989). Here what is meant is that learning is related to
another earlier/previous experience. That is, relating one thing to another.
The moment one of these two things is seen, the other can easily be recalled.
In other words one becomes a cue to the recall of the other (Chauhan 1987).
Experiential teaching method also provides opportunity for association. This is
because of the use of concrete object as teaching aids. In the application of experiential teaching methodologies, emphasis
are laid on teaching aids that are sourced from learners’ environment. This
makes it possible for learners to be familiar with the teaching aid. As such,
the learners easily come in contact with the materials on daily basis. Any moment a child sees a concrete
object which was used to demonstrate/teach a particular topic in school, he/she
will recall the knowledge that the topic imparted.
4.
Learning by Practice
This
method is also known as learning by doing. In this method, the learners are encouraged
to participate actively in the learning process and the experiences acquired
will be remembered for a longer period (Unachukwu, 1989). This practice is the
core of experiential teaching. Through practice with concrete materials
learners construct and reconstruct meaning which is life long and transferable
from one situation to another. If for example, a child is guided to find out
the characteristics of living and non-living things, the chances of the child
recognizing all living and non-living things any where he sees it are very
high. If on the other hand, a child participates in conducting any experiment
in a subject matter, such child can hardly forget it. Indeed, learning by
practice is the best way to learn as it imparts knowledge which is life long to
learners.
5.
Use of Mnemonic Devices
According to
(Unachukwu 1989), the mnemonic devices are individually formulated abbreviation
used by learners to aid recall of major points. Mnemonic devices are also used
to learn materials that come close to meaningless materials. This is useful in
the area of science subjects as formulas are represented with such devices. For
example, H2SO4, HCl, CO2.
Imagery (AUDIO-visual Aids): Audio-visual
Aids are mostly materials that are used to appeal to the senses of sight and
sound of learners. These materials appear in various forms. They include radio,
television, tape records etc. There is no point emphasizing the obvious fact
that effective use of these materials as instructional materials in the class-room
aids retention. The reasons these materials are needed in teaching is that
there are people who can see but cannot hear well, while some other people can
hear well but cannot see. This therefore means that for audio-video aids to
serve properly, there should be joint use of
the materials. Audio-video should be well prepared (Unachukwu 1989).
This enhances retention of learners. Therefore if educators want to enhance
retention in learning, they should encourage the use of this method.
Self Recitation
This
is a method of continuously rehearsing what was learned. This rehearsal could
be done by heart or aloud by the learner. Learners can also recite individually
in groups. Therefore, to encourage learners to retain what they had learnt,
teachers should organize them in groups or encourage individual rehearsal of
what they learnt.
Building
blocks Psychologists have generally acknowledged building blocks as a method
that enhances retention of learning. One way of doing this is to use Advance
Organizer (Unachukwu 1989). Advanced organizer according to Unachukwu
(1989:200) means that if the teacher teaches in advance of the actual lesson
the main ideas of that lesson”. This helps students in many ways as well. It
enables them point out the similarities between what they already know and what
is to be learnt.
The
implication of all these methods to the educational system is that Educators (teachers)
should understand the teaching method which will lead to the adoption of these
strategies that facilitate retention. In fact the process of education will be
meaningless if children do not retain the knowledge transmitted in school. That
is why the use of experiential teaching method is being recommended. The
strategies discussed above are similar with the process of experiential
teaching method. Educators must strive at fashioning out strategies that will
enhance retention of knowledge transmitted in school. This will enhance
transfer and application in the context outside the learning environment.
6. Transfer
of learning
The essence of
any form of education (formal or informal) is to equip the learner with the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will enable the learner to adapt and
survive in the society. Formal education becomes irrelevant if the knowledge
transmitted to those who submit themselves to it cannot be used to solving the
problems of learner outside the school environment. It will be absurd situation
if what children were taught in formal school had no relevance outside the
context of the school (Nwachukwu 1989). Therefore, to make sure that the
knowledge transmitted in schools are useful in overcoming the challenges of the
society, educators must emphasize on strategies that enhance transfer of
learning. Children are educated to prepare them for living. They are also
educated to enable them acquire values and deep sense of morality. Based on
those expectations, and in line with the implicit faith the society places on
the efficacy of education, one should expect that all school learning should
have a positive carry-over effect on challenges or problems in society. That is
why government spends large percentage of her annual budget in education.
Knowledge
transfer implies carrying knowledge across contextual boundaries (Fernwick 2000).
To Chanhan (1978:200) knowledge transfer is “the application or carryover of
knowledge, skill, habits, attitudes or other responses from the situation in
which they were initially acquired to some other situation for which they were
not specifically learned.” From the above therefore, achievement in any school
subject can only be adequately measured in relation to the extent to which
learners are able to utilize the knowledge acquired in school to solve their
daily problems or life challenges. Teachers and curriculum planners have the grave
responsibility of ensuring that the teaching method for use in teaching and the
curriculum content make provision for transfer of learning. Psychologists on
their own have identified three possible knowledge transfers. They include
positive transfer, negative transfer and zero transfer (Nwachuku 1989). If
knowledge in basic science and technology enhanced understating a concept in
health education, positive transfer has taken place. If the same knowledge has
inhibited learning in another subject area, it is negative transfer. But if it
has neither enhanced nor inhibited acquisition of other knowledge or skill then
it is zero transfer.
In transfer, there are three types
of transfers these include: sequential, lateral and vertical transfers. Each of
these may take place depending on the nature of its task, its levels of
difficulty and the conditions which result in transfer (Nwachuku 1989).
Lateral transfer involves using
knowledge gained to solve the same level of task of equal difficulty in another
situation. Vertical transfer occurs if knowledge acquired is used to solve a
complex problem from the same knowledge area. This implies that there is a
movement from lower level to higher level of difficulty. (Chauhan 1978)
Indeed transfer is critical to
learning, in that, if there is no transfer, there is hardly any learning,
because the essence of learning is for the acquisition of knowledge, and skills
needed to solve problems in life. Experiential teaching approach guarantees
transfer of learning.
Life skill: These are the
basic skills or techniques which individuals require to cope effectively in
life and for every day functioning (UNICEF, 2001). By definition, experiential
learning is seen as a process through which a learner generates knowledge,
skills and value from direct experiences (Houle 1980). The skill may be
vocational skill or life skills. Skill is an indispensable component of
learning such that any form of education that does not incorporate skill
development or acquisition is grossly inadequate. Skills are indispensable to
the growth of knowledge. At the basic school level, knowledge in science and
technology should impart basic life skills to learners, most especially those
that relate to science process skills. This will enable learners develop the
needed skills to cope in a society dominated by scientific and technological
innovations and skills in doing further science. Typical examples of skills
needed here are, perseverance, close observation, curiosity, testing,
precisions in use of instruments, measurement and accuracy in interpretation. Children
are empowered when they can exercise age-appropriate control, make choices that
impact themselves, their resources and participate in the society. Life skills
when appropriately mainstreamed into relevant subject matters contributes to
young people’s empowerment by helping them to understand their rights and
responsibilities while building their skills to understand and benefit from
opportunities around them, UNICEF (2013). Life skill gives rise to critical
thinking. This means that any child that acquires relevant life skills in the
course of doing science must weigh every decision, viz-a-vis the merits and
demerits of the usage of the knowledge acquired. The child must consider the
impact of the application of the knowledge to himself and the larger community.
Life skills on the other hand are
seen by World Health Organization (WHO, 2001;4) as “the abilities for adaptive
and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands of every day life”. To UNICEF (2001:7), life skill means “a behaviour
change or behaviour development approach designed to address a balance of these
areas; knowledge, attitudes and skill”. Life skills promote mental well being
of and competencies in young people to enable them face the realities of life.
Life skill include, skills in problem solving, critical thinking, creative
thinking, coping with stress and emotions (UNICEF, 2001). Well-motivated
teachers through the use of certain method and tools could develop these skills
in learners, which enables learners change from passive recipients of knowledge
to active participants in the learning process (UNICEF, 2001). Life skills are
not only indispensable in developing learners’ interest in doing science but
are necessary in dealing with the realities of life. Educators should be
cognizant of this important point and plan all basic science and technology lessons
in such a way that each unit of instruction contains relevant life skill component.
It is important to note that Education is not complete if it does not impart
relevant life skills to its clientele. These life skills are very essential and
are considered as major results/out-comes of quality education (science or
art). In most developed educational settings such as U.S.A, United Kingdom,
Canada,
life skills are strongly emphasized as it is a means to empower young people to
deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Science as
we know being critical to the social and economic wellbeing of every individual
should promote the development of life skills right from the formative level of
education. Science education that does not include the requisite life skills in
every unit of course may lead to children acquiring scientific knowledge which
may turn to be destructive as the recipient of the knowledge may put the
knowledge into wrong usage. It is therefore necessary that experiential teaching
method which emphasizes the acquisition of skills could be used in the teaching
of Basic Science and Technology. The major task before the teacher in employing
the method is to carefully guide the learners so that the skills that will be
emphasized in the course of instruction will be those that are useful to the
development of the learners themselves and the society at large. Indeed, it is
evident that the world at present has gone scientific. Social and economic lives
are becoming more complex. It is becoming more important to gain scientific
skills that will help young and adult people become competent and confident in
achieving results to the best of their abilities. Therefore, a pedagogical
approach that is suitable in equipping people to adapt to this present
challenges is the one that equips learners with life skills in addition to
imparting knowledge to the learner about the subject matter. Experiential
teaching method is one of those teaching approaches and educators should
encourage teachers to adopt and extensively use it in not only teaching of science
and technology but all other subjects taught in basic schools. Through life
skill education, children acquire a greater sense of belonging and confidence,
their ability to take positive actions and make important decisions in their
lives are enhanced. It enables to make better career choice in life. When life
skills are built into the teaching of basic science and technology, children
are placed in a better position to make positive career choices in sciences.
This becomes obvious as UNICEF (2013) had stated that the definition of life
skill includes a range of skills and knowledge. Essential in its definition are
the personal, interpersonal and cognitive psychosocial skills that enable
people to interact appropriately, manage their own emotional states and make
their own decisions and choices for an active, safe and productive life (UNICEF
2013). Life skill gives rise to critical thinking. This means that any child
that acquires relevant life skills in the course of doing science must weigh
every decision, viz-a-vis the merits and demerits of the usage of the knowledge
acquired. This could be achieved
through the use of experiential teaching method in its delivery. Experiential
teaching method brings to bear the creativity and ingenuity in learners. This
is so because it challenges learners to discover fact about issues through the
use of their sense or reasoning.
Gender Sensitivity
In
a bid to providing equal opportunities to both male and female learners to
fully participate in basic science or other subjects in school, using the
experiential teaching approach, educators (teachers) should be gender
sensitive.
Gender sensitivity in instructional
delivery refers to the use of non-sexist expression. It refers to the selection
of teaching materials that do not portray gender discrimination. Such teaching
materials include: story illustrations, textbook illustrations etc. it extends
to the non-assignment of responsibility to a particular gender, if on the other
hand teachers emphasize or de-emphasize any gender, it will limit the extent to
which the de-emphasized gender will succeed in the course of instruction,
especially in science course. This issue has become necessary since we are
living in a society that believes that science and all science allied
professions are not meant for girls.
It is against this backdrop that
Njoku (2006:16) had observed that “strong gender biases pervade science and
technology (S&T) curricular used in Nigeria basic and senior secondary
schools”. The biases according to him are in terms of choice of drawings, or
pictures of illustration of S&T activities, language of expression used in
S&T books, teachers’ choice of activities used in science teaching. He lamented
that girl’s interest and daily experiences are rarely considered for inclusion
in the S&T books. It is evident as was observed by Okeke and Rufai (2003:5)
that “teachers’ teaching styles, attitudes, interactions, expectations and even
the task they assign such as male and female leadership positions, work to
reduce girls participation in class and eventual achievement”. If the above
claim is true, it then means that if such ugly practices are not checked,
teachers may extend it to this experiential method of instructional delivery.
This will further deepen girls’ disadvantaged position in the study of basic
science. Any discrimination in providing any type of education (science or art)
as is in the case of boys and girls cannot be accepted as it cannot be
justified. It constitutes breach of fundamental human right.
Gender
response pedagogy must be adopted and used by teachers. Gender responsive
pedagogy refers to the specific learning needs of girls and boys…in the process
of lesson planning, teaching, and classroom management and performance
evaluation (ADEA, 2006).
Pupils’ Participation:
Participation in the context of this
study refers to involvement. This means involving pupils adequately in science
class room instructional process. Low or total none involvement of pupils in
science delivery process is the bane of science instruction in Nigeria as was
reported by some science education researchers.
Science is referred to as a system
of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method as well to the organized
body of knowledge gained through such research (Wikipedia, 2012). The scientific
method according to Harlen (1992:8) refers to “the first hand use of physical
and mental skills to generate and test reliable knowledge and generalization”.
The skills involved in doing science is called the “process-skills”. The
process skills involve process such as observation, question raising inquiry,
hypothesizing, predicting, planning, experimenting and interpreting of
observation. Science also involves using the knowledge that has been generated
through the process skills to create and continually refine testable models of
nature that help us to describe, explain, predict and to conceptualize observable
phenomenon of nature (Harlen 1992). The implication of the above facts of
science is that science is an activity-based subject. As an activity based
discipline, children involved in the study of science are expected to be
involved deeply and at all times in carrying out activity, asking questions
while carrying out the activities and giving explanations on the outcome of the
activities carried out. By so doing that children will study science with
understanding. But contrary to the above stated approach in effective
teaching/learning of science, Education science researchers have independently
decried the none participation (involvement) of children in any doing activity
in the science classes. For example, Omotayo and Olaoye (2008) had noted that
one of the allegations against the poor quality of science instructions in Nigeria is the
“total lack or insufficient participation of students in the learning process.
Nworgu and Nwazojie (2003:13) had on their own lamented that “the didactic
method which teachers currently employ in teaching primary science emphasizes
rote memoration and regurgitation of facts. Pupils’ activities are given less
emphasis”. Ling and Boo (2007:2) on their own stated that “the teaching of science
in primary schools is often didactic. It is not surprising that pupils learn
science concepts by rote---- there is often lack of understanding of concepts
and principles”. The implication of the above observations is that if the
teaching approach employed in teaching of science and technology is not changed
from the current didactic to an activity-based, such as the experiential
teaching approach, learners in Nigerian basic education will continue to
perform abysmally in the study of Basic Science and Technology.
Participation (involvement) fosters
commitment, ownership and interest. Therefore if children are to show sense of
commitment and interest in the study of science, they must be involved in the
process of generating ideas, explanation of facts and experimenting. They
should be given tasks to carry out both in and outside the class room, while
their teachers will facilitate the process. The class room science teaching
approach must be such that is constructed in a way that brings children to the
highest level of involvement (participation). This is what could bring about
deep-level-learning. The adoption of Experiential teaching approach in class room
science delivery will be a panacea to the total lack or insufficient
participation of students in the learning process as was observed by Omotayo
and Olaleye (2008).
Ajiboye and Ajitoni (2008:59) had
observed that” children learn best by being interested fully in their own work;
by seeing themselves; by doing themselves; by puzzling themselves; by verifying
their own suppositions; by experimenting themselves; by drawing conclusions
themselves on the strength of evidence which they have collected themselves”.
Children could make mistakes which they then could rectify themselves in the
light of new information and evidence which they have uncovered themselves
(Omotayo and Oladeya 2008). For this to occur, an activity-based teaching
approach such as experiential teaching method should be used in
teaching/learning in the class room. This is because this teaching approach
fosters participation (involvement) in class room activities. An involved
person narrows his/her mind or attention to a particular activity that he is
involved or participating. Involvement goes along with strong motivation,
fascination and total implication: there is no distance between the person and
the activity, no calculation of the possible sacrifice. Furthermore, there is
an openness to relevant stimuli and the perceptual and cognitive functioning
has an intensity, lacking in activities of another kind (Leavers 2002).
Involvement or participation gives rise to state of flow in children. The state
of flow according to laevers( 2002:13) is “sought stream of energy felt through
the body” people actively seek this “sought-stream of energy”
Indeed, young people
or children usually find it in play (Laevers 2002). This therefore demands that
the teaching approach in school should be the type that involves play method. Experiential
teaching approach therefore is the most suitable teaching approach especially
for teaching of science and technology as it makes teaching/learning to be fun
for learners. Infact, if we want our children to develop and become science
literate, we cannot do without adopting Experiential teaching approach in
teaching science and technology in basic schools as it fosters involvement
(participation). The satisfaction that goes along with participation (involvement)
stems from the facts that it arose exploratory drive in children. Exploratory
drive is the interest which learners (children) develop that pushes them to get
better grip on reality, the intrinsic interest in knowing how things and people
are, the push to experience and find out more about things. But teachers and
Educators should understand that involvement (participation) is only meaningful
if the activity and materials in use are age appropriate and match the
capabilities of the children. Indeed, If we want to achieve government’s
objectives in basic science and technology for children, we must implore
teachers to start using the experiential teaching approach, in teaching of
science and technology since it will guarantee pupils participation in
instructional process.
(Laevers,
2002) had suggested that teachers who use experiential teaching
approach
in the class room should increase their pupil’s (Learner)
involvement/participation
by:
Supplying
stimulating intersections or open impulses that engender a claim of actions in
children like; suggesting activities to children.
Offering
materials that fit into an on going activity.
- Inviting children to communicate
- Confronting them with thought
provoking questions and giving them information that can capture their mind.
- Being sensitive to the basic needs of
the child. This includes; needs for security, for affection, for attention, for
affirmation; for clarity and for emotional support.
- granting children autonomy.
This
means to respect children’s sense of initiative by acknowledging their interest.
* Giving them room for experimentation
* Letting them decide upon the way and
how an activity is performed and when a product is finished.
* Implicating them in the setting of
rules and the solution of conflicts
* Granting children autonomy.
This
means to respect children’s sense of initiative by acknowledging their
interest.
* Giving them room for experimentation
* Letting them decide upon the way and
how an activity is performed and when a product is finished.
* Implicating them in the setting of
rules and the solution of conflicts.
Indeed, teachers should use the
experiential teaching approach to develop children skills in using science process
skills; the process skills will make children participate (be involved) in science
delivery process. This is quite necessary as the science process skill is the
driving force in effective class room teaching-learning process.
Experiential Learning Models
A philosophy in any subject matter
is only useful if it can be translated into action. If it cannot be translated
into any action, it is useless; so also is the case with Dewey’s theory of
experiential teaching approach. Itin (1999) had stated that “one step in
explicating the philosophy of experiential education is through developing a
model of the process”. According to him, all models are by definition,
idealized visions or representations that help one examine the key principles
within a theory. The purpose of designing any model is to demonstrate or
illustrate graphically the interrelationship between the principles.
The
intent of this model of experiential teaching approach is to provide the
teachers and other readers with a holistic picture of how the philosophy might
look in practice (Itin 1999).
Davis’ Model of Experiential Learning
Davis
(1993) in his Conceptualization of the Experiential Learning model, looks at it
as the transactive process between teacher and learners. Here, teaching in this model is defined as interaction
of the student and a teacher over a subject. As a transitive process which his model portrays,
the teacher brings information and so also the learner. Both of them bring
information to the process. The teacher and the learners not only interacts but
also exchange knowledge. This means that learners learn from the teachers and
teachers also learn from the learners. Similarly student learners learn from
the environment, but they also affect or change the environment. The
educational process does more than take place within a setting. It interacts
and transacts with numerous environmental aspects (Itin 1999).
The environment does not only refer
to the immediate place where the teaching is taking place, but also the wider
society including its socio-political and socio-economic sub-sectors, the
entire learners in the class, and any other systems that impacts on the
teaching learning process (Itin, 1999).
The Diamond Model of Experiential
Learning
There
is also the Diamond model of
experiential teaching approach. The Diamond model emphasizes four principle
system and the transactive process between them. This transactive process which is part of the experience is
between the four principle system (teacher, learner, subject and learning
environment). The core of this diamond model is a teaching process which marks
a shared concrete experience. The teacher trys to encourage the transactive
process. That is how the experience is used to guide the educational and
process.
The Diamond Model of the Philosophy of Experiential Education
In
experiential teaching, experience plays vital roles in the learning process.
Experiential learning describes the type of learning whereby learners are
provided with the chances to acquire and apply knowledge and develop skills in
a relevant setting. This means that learners get direct involvement with
actions or activities that lead to knowledge acquisition. It was based on the
above consideration and the belief that knowledge results from the combination
of grasping and transforming experience that David Kolb in 2000 designed his
own model of experiential teaching. The David Kolb’smodel portrays two related
modes of grasping experiences. Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract
Conceptualization (AC). He then classified another two modes of transforming
the experience as Reflective observation (RO) and Active Experimentation
(AE). Focusing on the above, Kolb
designed a four-stage learning cycle.
Concrete Experience (1)
Observation and Reflection
(2)
Forming Abstract
Concept (3)
Testing in new Situation (4)
The four-stage learning cycle by Kolb (2000)
According
to the learning cycle, immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation
and reflections. The reflections are assimilated and sieved out into abstract
concept from which new implications for actions can be drawn. These
implications can be actively tested and serve as guide in creating new
experiences, (Kolb Boyaltus Mainemielis: 2000). The model therefore suggests
that to undertake learning requires specific abilities. For example, in
grasping experience, some people perceive new information through experiencing
the concrete, tangible, felt qualities of the world, relying on our senses and
immersing oneself in concrete reality. Others tend to perceive, grasp, or take
hold of new information through symbolic representation (abstract
conceptualization) (David Kolh et al 2000).
In transforming or processing
experience some people tend to carefully watch others who are involved in the
experience and reflect on what happens, while others chose to jump in and start
doing things. The watchers favour reflective observation while the doers favour
active experimentation. Each dimension of learning process presents us with a
choice. Moreso, human beings are naturally equipped with hereditary or with our
past life experiences and the demand of our present environment, we develop a
preferred way of choosing. To solve the conflict between concrete or abstract
and between active or reflective, we resort to patterned characteristic ways.
This is what is called the learning styles (David Kolh et al 2000).
The learning styles can be broadly
classified into four groups. They include:
1. Diverging
2. Assimilating
3. Converging
4. Accommodating.
Diverging: The
Diverging style’s dominant learning abilities according to Kolb et al (2000)
are concrete experience and reflective Observation. People with this learning
styles are best at viewing concrete situations from many different angles or
points of view. They look at things from many perspectives. It is labelled
“Diverging” because a person with it performs better in situations that call
for generation of ideas, such as brain storming session (Kolb et al 2000).
People with diverging learning style are characterized by having interest in
broad cultures and like to collect information. Research according to Kolb et
al (2000) shows that they are interested in people, sometimes imaginative and
emotional. In schools, people with diverging
style enjoy and favour working in group. They like listening with open mind.
Assimilating: For this
group, their dominant learning abilities are Reflective Observation (RO) and
Abstract Conceptualization (AC). (Kolb etal 2000). The people who possess this
learning style are good at understanding a wide range of information and
processing it into a concise and logical form. They are mostly in ideas and
abstract concepts. The assimilating learning style is critical for efficiency
in information and science careers. In schools especially at the basic level,
children with this style prefer reading, exploring analytical models and having
time to think things through (Kolb etal 2000).
Converging: Children with this learning style like to
experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignment and practical
applications. This learning skill is important for effectiveness and efficiency
in technology careers. The converging learning style is a combination of Abstract
Conceptualization and Active Experimentation (AE). In fact the people with this
style perform well with finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They
demonstrate strong ability in solving problems and making decisions based on
finding solutions to questions and problems. Indeed they prefer to deal with
technical tasks and problems rather than interpersonal issues (Kolb etal 2000).
Accommodating: This
learning style is a combination of concrete Experience and Active
experimentation. Children who have this learning style have the ability to
learn from” hand-on” experience. According to Kolb et al 2000:6) People with
this learning style “enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new
and challenging experiences”. They rely heavily on people for information when
solving problems. In adult, this learning style is important in action-oriented
careers such as marketing. In schools, children with this learning style work
more with others in order to get assignment done or to do field work and also
to test out approaches to completing project.
Research studies as was reported by
Kolb et al (2000) have shown that there are some adaptive competencies that are
associated with the four learning styles. The accommodative learning style is
associated with acting skills; The Diverging learning style is associated with
valuing skills. The assimilating learning style is related to thinking skill,
while the converging learning style is associated with decision skills
(quantitative analysis, use of technology and Goal setting) Kolb; 2000).
The
description and explanation of the learning styles are further shown in table
below.
Table 2: Learning Styles
|
Learning style
|
Learning characteristic
|
Description
|
|
Converger
|
Abstract
conceptualization + Active Experimentation
|
v Strong in practical application of ideas.
v Can focus on hypo deductive reasoning on
specific problems.
v Unemotional
|
|
Diverger
|
Concrete
experience + reflective observation
|
v Strong in imaginative ability.
v Good at generating ideas and seeing things
from different perspective
v Interested in people.
v Broad cultural interest.
|
|
Assimilator
|
Abstract
conceptualization + reflective observation
|
v Strong ability to create theoretical models
v Excels in inductive reasoning.
v Concerned with abstract concept rather than
people.
|
|
Accommodators
|
Concrete
experience + Active Experimentation
|
v Greater strength in doing things.
v More of risk taker
v
Performs well when required to react to immediate circumstance.
v Solve problems intuitively.
|
Kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant 1996).
From
the table 2, we can deduce that convergers are good at experimenting with new
ideas, simulations, laboratory assignment and practical application. The
Divergers on the other hand are good at listening with open mind and receiving
personalized feedback. They also prefer to work in groups. The assimilators are
good at science carriers and on information. In school, such learners prefer
reading, lectures, exploring analytical models and having time to think things
through. The accommodators are effective in action-oriented carriers; they can
do field work and test out different approaches to completing a project.
Processing: In the
application of experiential teaching approach processing plays vital role.
Luckner and Nadler (1997) stated that processing is designed to encourage
individuals to plan, describe, reflect upon, analyze and communicate about
their experience. Therefore processing according to them can be viewed as the
driving force behind the experiential learning cycle, much like the sun’s
energy drives the weather cycle of the earth. Processing can occur prior to
during, and after the experience. Those teachers who become skilled in the
experiential learning activities provide their learners with avenues to bring
their thoughts, feelings, insights, metaphors, and behaviours patterns form the
unconscious level to the surface (Luckner and Nadler 1999).
Processing in experiential learning model by Luckner
and Nadler 1997
It is obvious from the foregone
discussions on the models of experiential teaching/learning presented that
in each of the models experience plays a
vital role in the application of the experiential teaching model as a pedagogical
tool in class room interaction. It is also pertinent to note that each of the
models portrays the role of the learner as being vital in the teaching/learning
process. This is not the case with traditional teaching approach where the
learner remains passive and commits knowledge already packaged in final form to
memory. The models of experiential teaching/learning emphasizes the need to
engage learner in activities and views teaching learning as a transitive
process between the teacher, and the learners. The models also shows that learning
occurs as a result of interaction between learners and teachers over the
subject matter. It shows further that there is interaction between the learners
and the learning environment. If the models of experiential teaching are
adopted, it will facilitate learning in learners that will be real, permanent
and transferable to situation outside the learning environment as the learners
will be practically involved in discovering facts about the subject matter.
The major feature of the models is
the role of the teacher. His role is central to the transmission of knowledge
as he is responsible for presenting opportunities for the experiences. He
directs the nature of the experience that will occur, he helps learners utilize
these experiences, he establishes the learning environment. It is also the
teacher who places boundary on the learning objectives; he shares necessary
information that will facilitate the experience to take place. Therefore,
teachers have knowledge which is valuable and learners want and require the
knowledge. The models impel teachers into facilitating the experiential
learning process for students. (Itin 1999).
From the models presented, the
learners are not passive, the learners actively engage in creating with the
teacher the educational process. The learner is challenged to move beyond what
he/she already knows which forms his/her initial experience. It is important to
note that neither the teacher nor the learners dominate the process, the
teacher and the learners both bring their skills, talent efforts and other
resources to the educational process. This is what empowerment based education
is all about. In empowerment based-education according to Shor (1992:17) “is
student centered, but not necessarily student directed”. Finally, the model
shows that teachers and learners create educational process through their
interaction and transaction.
The information in the Kolb et al’s
model of experiential learning is highly enriching. Educators are presented
with ample opportunity of understanding their learners’ learning styles in
order to offer them career guidance. It is equally important to note that of
the learners themselves discover their learning style and its implications on
carreer decision or choices, they will be in position to make informed decision
adequate on selection of careers choice in life.
Therefore the application and
understanding of the use of experiential teaching approach will have far
reaching effect in the educational system, based on the above model of the
approach by Kolb. There is compelling need that educators should adopt it as a
teaching method not only in teaching basic science and technology but all other
subjects taught in Nigerian Basic Schools.