The experiential learning theory
(ELT) by Kolb provides a holistic model of the learning process, which is
consistent with what we know about how people learn. Experiential learning theory is based on Dewey’s philosophical
pragmatism, Lewin’s social psychology and Piaget’s cognitive developmental
genetic epistemology. To Kolb, Boyatzis and Mainemielis (2000) experiential
learning views learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience.
Knowledge results from the combination of
grasping and transforming experiences. In line with this observation, Kelly
(2007) observed that Mezirow, Freire (2000) and others had stressed that the
heart of all learning lies in the way we process experience in particular and,
our critical reflection of experience. They spoke of learning as a cycle that
begins with experience continues with reflection and later leads to action,
which itself become concrete experience for reflection. The views of those
scholars helped to show the way the experiential teaching approach if adopted
and utilized will help to enhance pupils’ achievement in Basic Science and technology.
Indeed, current theory and practice
have recognized experiential learning to predominantly constitute reflective,
construction of meaning, with particular emphasis on critical reflection and
dialogue (Fenwick 2000). Perhaps it is important at this point to discuss some
of the educational theories of learning upon which experiential learning is
anchored.
John Dewey’s Theory of Experience
Among the notable empiricists is John
Dewey, whose version of pragmatism is known as instrumentalism (Ward, 2008).
John Dewey is regarded as the modern father of experiential (progressive)
education. Dewey’s Major concern was to link experience with reflection, which
essentially means linking undending with doing or participation. According to
Itin (1999:92) It is impossible to simply know without doing and impossible
to fully understanding without doing?
Dewey said that an educator must
take into account the unique difference between each learner. Each person is
different genetically and in terms of past experience. Even when a standard
curriculum is presented, using established pedagogical method, each learner
will have a different quality of experience. Thus, teaching and curriculum must
be designed in ways that allow such individual differences (Ward 2008). For
Dewey, the one way delivery style of authoritarian schooling does not provide a
good model for life in a democratic society. Instead, learners need educational
experiences which will enable them to become valued, equal and responsible
members of the society. He however cautioned the interpretation of the term
“freedom” as freedom in its entirety is not the solution. He rather affirmed
that learning needs a structure and order, and must be based on a clear theory
of experience, not simply the Whims of teachers or learners (Ward 2008). Thus,
Dewey proposed that education should be designed on the basis of a theory of
experiences. We must understand the nature of how humans have their experiences
in order to design effective education. In this respect, Dewey’s theory of
experience rested on two central tenets i.e. continuity and interactions.
Continuity: Dewey argued
that human are sensitive to (or are affected by) experiences. Human beings survive
more by learning from experience after they are born than do many other animals
that rely on pre-wind instincts. In humans, education is critical for providing
people with skills to live in the society. Dewey maintained that we learn
something from every experience, whether positive or negative and one’s
accumulated learned experience influence the nature of one’s future experience.
Thus every experience in some ways influences all potential future experience for
an individual. Therefore, continuity refers to this idea that each experience
is stored, carried on into the future, whether one likes it or not(Ward 2008).
Interaction: According to
Dewey’s postulation, interaction builds upon the notion of continuity and
explains how past experience interacts within the present situation to create
one’s present experience. Dewey’s hypothesis is that your current experience
can be understood as a function of your past (stored) experience. Any situation
can be explained in profoundly different ways because of unique individual difference
(Ward 2008). This is important for educators to understand. While educators
cannot control learners past experiences, they need to understand those past
experiences so that better educational situations can be presented to the
learner. Ultimately, all the teachers have control over are present situations.
The good teacher with good insight into the effects of past experience which
learners bring with them better enables the teacher to provide quality
education which is relevant and meaningful for the learner (Ward 2008).
The implication of this theory of
experience in teaching of basic science through experiential teaching approach
is that learners should always be provided opportunity to be actively involved
in the learning process. Materials must be provided in the classroom, and
learners should be guided to manipulate the materials in order to find out
facts about concepts being thought. Their participation will help to construct,
reconstruct or deconstruct beliefs or myths which they hitherto had prior to
learning. The facts that arose from the classroom interactions help to build up
children’s experience for future life and learning activities. In addition,
participation may facilitate learning because learners may have been involved
(past experience) in similar activity either in school or in the
community. Experiential teaching
approach is orderly planned and sequential. Tyler (1971:85) identified planned
“sequential practice” of what is being learned as a key element of learning
system. The method offers learner opportunity to learn by practice. Dewey (1938:132)
stated that “… All principles by themselves are abstract. They become concrete
only in the consequences which result from their application”. This assertion
is in line with Brookfield
(1983;113) definition of experiential learning as “a method which reflects a
desire to gain knowledge and skills”. Experiential learning provides learners
opportunity for practical application of theory, the application provide
knowledge and skills that are pervasive, permanent and life long. From the
above discussion it is obvious that if experiential teaching approach is
adopted as a teaching approach in teaching basic science and technology in
schools, learners will have the opportunity to get involve in practical aspect
of the learning in addition to theoretical aspect of it. This will lead to the
pupils acquiring knowledge about science that will be long lasting, pervasive
and permanent. This is the only way that the goal of government in
introduction of Basic science and technology in the Basic school curriculum will
be achieved.
Piagetian theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget studied the development
process of understanding knowledge and working of the child’s mind. He proposed
that cognitive development proceeds through an orderly sequence of stages. His
main concern was the study of how intelligence develops and the laws which
govern this development. For Piaget, intelligence is the interaction between
the individual and the environment, thus creating adaptation. He maintained
that the functional process of intelligence consists of assimilation and
accommodation. When a child tackles a new situation, he naturally goes about it
in ways familiar to him, trying to understand the new situation in relation to
what he had already known. According to Igboabuchi (1989) and, Chauhan (1989), assimilation
is therefore the process whereby the individual gradually comes to include the
new information acquired into his present thinking by adjusting his scheme of
thinking so that the new one can be included.
Accommodation on the other hand is a
process where an ‘old scheme (or way of thinking about something) is modified
in order to adjust to the new information. (Igboabuchi 1989) Thus in
intelligent act, the individual will assimilate information into his thinking
structure and at the same time accommodate this structure to deal more
appropriately with the reality. Adaptation occurs when assimilation and
accommodation are balanced. Piaget believed that schemas (cognitive structure)
exists in primitive form at conception and progressively develops during the
life time in certain systematic ways. Therefore, in seeking to explore and
understand the world around him, perpetual functional process will generate
mental structures (or overall picture) about how things fit together. These
mental structures develop and change as the child grows. Igboachi (1989) Piaget
identified four stages of these mental structure developments.
Each
stage has a peculiar way of organizing information or experiences. The four
stages are as follows: Sensori-motor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete
operational stage and formal operational stage.( Igboabuchi, 1989)
A. Sensori-motor
stages: This starts from birth to the age of two. The child is in
pre-nursery classes.
B. Pre-operational
stage: This starts from ages two to four years. The child at this stage
is in nursery class.
C. The concrete operational stage. This
starts at the age of eleven (11) years
The concrete operational stage
Concrete
Operational Stage according to Chauhan (1978:82) refers to “that stage of
cognitive development when the child is able to direct his attention away from
the static conditions and can focus on the whole set of successive changes that
occur in the process of transformation”. This means that the child can reason
well. This stage starts from age 7-12. the child at this stage can do
“grouping” (Chauhan, 1978). Grouping is a term which piaget had coined to
describe a set of operations which a child
at this stage can undertake (Chauhan 1978). At this concrete operational stage,
the child finds it difficult to go beyond concrete situations and generalize
what was learned in one situation to a new situation. (Igboabuchi 1989). At the
concrete operational stage, what the child undertakes and operates with is the
real, he/she does not comprehend the potential. Here, the child begins to learn
concepts such as number, order (in sequence) and measurement. This means that
such children can undertake addition, subtraction, multiplying and dividing.
During the period of concrete operations, there are some logical
inconsistencies in the child’s thinking. Piaget calls this “syncretism”
(Chauhan 1978). At this period a child can now understand or recognize whole no
matter the manner and ways parts of the whole are arranged or re-arranged. For
instance, if water is transferred from a large cup to a small cup the child
will still recognize that the volume has not changed. The major achievements at
this stage according to Igboabuchi (1989:84) “are decentering, conservation and
reversibility”. In fact at this stage the child can think logically.
Children in this stage are in basic
school and only very few will be in secondary school. Teaching here requires
enough use of teaching aids to help appeal to learning senses and make lessons
real. Here the use of experiential method of teaching will facilitate the
development of both small and large muscles as children will continuously be
engaged in the manipulation of the teaching aids provided in the class.
Children should be encouraged to participate actively in all class activities
as this will help develop their senses of smell, sight and in some cases taste.
This is because participation (involvement) in events makes children active. It
creates satisfaction. This satisfaction that goes along with participation
stems from one source; the exploratory drive, inquisitiveness, the need to get
better grip on reality. The intrinsic interest in how things and people are the
urge to experience and figure out. Their
affective and psychomotor domains will also develop. This is the hallmark of
experiential learning. The experiential teaching method should be combined with
dramatization, experimentation, and demonstration techniques. Also, there
should be extensive use of illustration and interesting stories in the
classroom during all instructional delivery. Basic science and technology should be taught solely through
experiential learning while the teacher encourages the pupils to experiment.
The implication of Jean Piaget’s
theory of cognitive development to learning is that teachers should try to find
out what learners already know prior to the learning period. This is due to the
fact that the way the child approaches the new learning situation will have
bearing on the learners’ previous knowledge (old experience). If what the child
already knows is related to what is to be learned, the process of new learning
for assimilation will be facilitated. If it does not relate to what he had
known, learning will not be enhanced very fast. The teacher who applies the
experiential teaching methods can effectively achieve the above goal. This is
because the teaching method builds on the past experience of learners in the
presentation of new (present) experiences. More so, in line with the principle
of the experiential teaching method, learners should be provided with learning
materials that are appropriate to the Piagetian mental stage of the child. The
teacher through facilitation should guide learners to find out fact about the
topic for accommodation in their scheme. The learning materials must be
adequate and preferably sourced from the learners’ environment. Teachers in
Basic Schools should as well determine the piagetian mental age of children, so
that they will know the appropriate teaching method to employ most especially
in presentation of facts to learners. Furthermore,
the knowledge of the mental stage of the learner shows that the material, the
task to be assigned and the level of participation of learners should vary
among learners. Moreover, to teach basic
science and technology in basic schools, teachers must provide concrete
teaching/learning aids (materials) to learners. This is because learners are at
the concrete operation developmental stage. Ideas should be presented one after
the other. If for example, a teacher is teaching about flowering plants, he
should not combine the lesson with topics on vegetative plants. If he does, the
children will get confused. Concrete objects must be used as teaching aids. Topics
that are abstract should not be taught in basic science and technology and if
it must be taught at all, concrete objects should be used to illustrate or
demonstrate the effect of such topics. Such concepts include air, wind, and
energy. If such abstract concepts are not illustrated with concrete object; the
lesson becomes meaningless to learners at such mental stage Experiential
teaching method makes learning real and addresses the learning needs of
learners, as learners come face to face with real life challenges/problems. The
major task of the teacher is to appropriately match each task with materials
that will reflect life situation and the mental stage of learners as specified
by piaget theory.
The major limitation of this theory
is that human beings have individual differences; the mental development of
children of the same chronological age may not be at exactly the same piagetian
development mental stage. It is note worthy that Basic Science and technology
is a subject that should be practical oriented. This becomes more obvious when
the subject is taught to children that are still within the Piaget’s concrete
operational state. To effectively teach the subject so that it will make
meaning and as well bear the desired results, experiential teaching approach
must be employed by teachers. This will help correct the faulty approach
currently employed in teaching the subject which Nworgu and Nwazojie (2003:13)
Lamented that in it “pupils’ activities are given less emphasis”. While Ling
and Boo (2007:3) states that it makes pupils view science and technology as
“pieces of information and do not see the big picture of a unit of learning”.
If the experiential teaching approach is adopted by teachers in the teaching of
science and technology, children will start to apply what they are taught in
their science and technology lessons in their everyday activities. Therefore
basic science and technology will not be made alien to pupils as was observed
by Omotayo and Olaleye (2008:2) when they lamented that the current teaching approach
makes ‘science alien rather than being tool for industry”.
Brunerian Theory
Jerome Bruner,
an American Educational psychologist developed a theory of intellectual
development. His theory favoured the use of discovery approach to learning
(Igboabuchi 1989). This discovery approach to learning is what experiential
teaching approach emphasizes.
Bruner’s theory of cognitive growth
shows that the child’s intellect develops in a sequential order or stage. This
stages were labeled as presentation’s by him. (Igboabuchi 1989). The stages are
as follows:
1. Enactive representation:
2. Iconic Representation:
3. Symbolic Representation:
Enactive representation falls within the early
childhood. This is between the first two years of
the child. This is the time the child gains knowledge by means of his actions
or activities. (Igboabuchi 1989).
Iconic representation:
At this stage, the child’s central focus is on concreteness. This stage is
similar to piaget’s concrete operational stage. In this stage whatever is
presented to the child must be concrete for the child to grasp and make meaning
out of it. This means that concreteness not abstract conveys meaning to the
child.
In this stage according to
Igboabuchi (1989:86) “their (children’s) system of thought depends mainly on
visual organization. The visual images aid the development of mental
structures. The images formed help the child to engage in logical thinking”.
Therefore, to teach a child that falls within this iconic stage needs
presentation of concrete object. To achieve this, a teaching approach that
encourages use of authentic or real object must be the most desired, such
method must encourage hands-on and
minds-on, it must be an activity-based teaching approach.
Bruner identified two major terms
that characterizes stages of learning. These are
(a) Concept formation- This refers to the process
of primitive categorization of objects. (Chauchan 1978)
(b) Concepts attainment. The number of dimensions
or specific attribute values of concepts that are known to the subject before
hand and hence he is properly set to find out the definite attributes of a
concept. (Chanhan 1989)
According to
the theory, there are three types of concepts
(1) Conjunctive
(2) disjunctive
(3) Relational concepts
The theory posits that the variety
of concepts differ from individual to individual depending upon his
environment, intelligence and language ability. The formation of concept by
individuals is cumulative. The concept formed in individual’s later life also
is determined by the early experiences of the person. Therefore the early experiences
are very important and play important role in the cognitive development of the
child in later life: The concept attainment of children begins with concrete
and real objects in the children begins with concrete and real objects in the
child’s environment.
The child explores his physical
environment and through the process of observation, imitation and conversation
with older people he builds many concept (Chanhan, 1978).
Bruner’s theory have implications
for Educators, especially the teachers. These implications according to Chauhan
(1978) and Igbobuchi (1989) include:
(1) Educators (teachers) must provide direct
experience of concepts of object taught to learners. This idea is consistent
with the Philosophy guiding the application of experiential teaching approach. Included,
experiential teaching approach emphasizes that materials for use in teaching
should be sourced from the locality of the learners. This helps the learners to
recognize the material and as well identify and independently utilize it in
their homes. Moreover, direct experience gives first hand knowledge of the
objects because first hand experience leaves better image of the object.
(Chauhan 1978).
2. Use of teaching aids is very important.
They help to appeal to perceptual senses while teaching. Experiential teaching
approach also emphasizes the use of teaching aids. In the method, children are
provided with authentic materials in the class room, while the teachers’ role
is to facilitate the process of meaning making from the materials.
3. Use of Discovery approach and problems
solving is essential in learning. This is because learners develop autonomy and
self reliance and what is learnt is not easily forgotten. This is also
encouraged by the experiential teaching approach. In it, learners are presented
with real life problems. This helps learners to develop skills in solving
similar problems outside the class room environment. It helps to build the self
esteem of the learners.
4. New ideas are not easily assimilated by
the mind, if they are not associated with the previous learned concepts. This
is also the hallmark of the theory of experiential teaching. The method
emphasizes previous experience. It was also developed based on Dewey’s theory
of experience (Continuity and interaction). Therefore teachers should take
cognizance of this. They should try to find out what the learner already knows
in relation to the subject matter, so as to know the type of experience to
provide to learners in order to facilitate learning of new concepts. If there
is no link between what learners already know (Previous experience) and what is
about to be learned (new experience), effective learning can hardly take place.
Therefore experiential teaching approach is the most appropriate method to
teaching based on Bruner’s theory of spiral curriculum.
Igboabuchi
(1989:88) had noted that “to instruct someone in a discipline is not only a
matter of getting him to commit results to mind. Rather, it is to teach him to
participate in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge”.
The above view is strongly supported by the proponents of experiential teaching
approach, as the method emphasizes participation or involvement of learners in
discovering facts about a subject matter. The approach believes that learning
occurs through linking of understanding with doing. To do this, learners are
involved or made to engage intellectually, emotionally, socially and
practically in an uncertain environment where he/she may experience success,
failure, adventure and sometimes risk taking. In the process, the learning most
times involves interaction between learners, learners and educators, learners
and environment. The educator’s roles according to Itin (1992:93) “includes
selecting suitable experiences posing problems. Setting boundaries, supporting
learners, insuring physical and emotional safety, facilitating the learning
process, guiding reflection and providing the necessary information”. Bruner’s
theory that emphasizes learning by discovery supports the science method as
Wikipedia (2008:4) had defined science as “a reasoned-based analysis of
sensation upon our awareness”. As such, the teaching method that is most
effective in the study of since must be such that involves observation of
natural phenomena, or experimentation, analyzing and predicting future events.
Therefore, Bruner’s theory provides basis for the adoption of a teaching
approach that will enhance the learning of science and technology at all levels
of education. Such teaching approach must be activity-based and must challenge
learners to effectively engage their sense of reasoning in discovering facts
for themselves. Experiential teaching approach possesses all the features that
the Bruner’s theory and science method require. Therefore, Educators should
take advantage of this and adopt it in the teaching of science, mostly at the
basic education level, as the foundation laid at this stage will affect
positively or negatively the study of science at other levels.
Kurt Lewin’s Cognitive Field Theory and Motivation
Kurt
Lewin’s field theory has its roots in Gestalt theory (Chanhan (1978). A Gestalt
is a coherent whole. It has its own laws and is a construct of the individual’s
mind rather than reality: for Kurt Lewin, behaviour was determined by totality
of an individual’s situation. In the field theory, a field is the totality of
co-existing factors which are conceived of as mutually interdependent.
Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which
tensions between perceptions of the self and of the environment where the
individual is located (Chauhan1978). Cognitive field theory on the other hand
lays emphasis on cognitive structure or perception of the total field by the
individual. From the theory, Lewin established that patterns of human behaviour
are regulated and directed by cognitive structure which the individual develops
in the course of his experience. Behaviour therefore is a function of the field
that exists at the time the behaviour occurs. In the field theory, Lewin
proposed that tension within the organism is created by disequilibrium within
the life space, which the individual wants
to release through activities (Chanhan 1978. Those activities, which
help the individual to release tension, are called to have positive valence and
those, which have opposite effect, are
said to have
negative valence. Tension persists till the goal or intention is completed.
Lewin proposed two types of needs; genuine needs and quasi-needs(Igboabuchi
1989).
Genuine needs arise from the
psychological condition of the organism, such as hunger and taste. Tensions arising
from intentions, acts of will, etc or even less arbitrary commitments of the
person are called quasi-needs. Individuals have characteristic structure of
needs, which creates tension and the organism in order to reduce tension is
activated. The desirability of an activity is described by Lewin as Valence. Force is the
tendency to engage in it. Valence
helps to account for choice but force may be more useful for speed or
persistence of behaviour. When a need arises, there will arise a force or a
field of forces, signifying a valenced activity. If the individual has no need
then the environment registers no valence for him nor does it generate any
force for him. In the application of the cognitive field theory emphasis is laid
on present experiences on the motivation of the Learner. Also, there is
emphasis on the past experiences of the individual. Past experiences are very
crucial but the cognitive theory focuses on present experiences of the
individual. The importance of Kurt Lewin’s Field theory to education is that
educators should try to know the learner from the learners’ own point of views.
He should start from where the learners’ perceptions are; and not where the
perceptions of the educators happen to be (Igboabuchi 1989)..
Secondly, Educators should set goals
and purposes for learners. Individual goals should be set. Goals according to
Lewin’s field theory create tension, which is reduced by action on the part of
the learners. Goals activate the learners. More so, since environment determines
the bahviour of an individual, school environment should be conductive for
learning. Furthermore, educators should explore the immediate and concrete
experiences of the learners, so as to determine the type of learning materials
to be provided to learners. To this Nwachukwu (1989; 215) inferred that
“perception of structure, the use of memory and previous experiences are the
key factors in insightful learning. The emphasis is on restructuring of present
field in order to extract the important elements.”
Again, the theory posits that
learning is a process of interaction between an organism and its environment.
Exploratory action, problem solving, creativity are all-important dimension of
learning. This implies that children should be encouraged to explore the world
as much as possible, ask questions, show excitements and express doubts.
Experiences along such lines equip them to grow up as complete human beings(Nwachukwu
1989). This will help to develop skills which are indispensable to growth of knowledge
in the learner. Learners through this process will acquire skills to test
sciences laws, discover new ones, and challenge science laws that are
inconsistent with facts that arise from experiments conducted. The above
features are consistent with experiential teaching. This is contrary to other
forms of learning, such as rote, which is meaningful where comprehension is
tested, or expository learning, where the entire content of what is to be
learned is presented in its final form. In both cases, the learner is passive,
reproducing the learning that has been identified by the teachers (Ausubel
1968). It is in line with the above consideration that experiential teaching
approach is being advocated for use in teaching of not only science but other
subjects in our basic schools. This will enable the children to interact with
the teaching/learning aids which the children will contribute to source from
their environment. Experiential teaching will also develop in children the needed
skills to explore their environment, ask questions and express doubts in
situations that are inconsistent with facts on ground. This approach will
develop the science process skill in the young learners and will lead to
greater understanding and achievement in Basic science and technology.
Theory of Transfer
In
an attempt to explain factors that influence learning transfer, psychologists
propounded the following transfer theories: Generalization theory, theory of
identical elements, formal discipline, theory of transposition. These theories
are also consistent with the
experiential teaching approach theory.
1. Generalization
Theory: This implies the ability to state a relationship between two or
more concepts (Chauhan 1978; Nwachukwu 1989). If a child learns a concept and is
able to transfer its attributes to a new situation, which did not play a part
in the original learning, the implication is that the child has generalized. If
the human person did not have the capacity for generalization, he would have to
learn the reaction to each stimulus with each new day. Experiential teaching
approach enhances knowledge transfer through generalization by linking
activities in school and home and with even past experiences.(Fenwek; 2000). It
is evident from the theory that if experiential teaching approach is adopted by
teachers in Basic Schools to teach basic science and Technology, children will
learn to generalize knowledge or skills acquired from their science classes.
This is the only way the knowledge they acquired will be useful to themselves
and the society.
2. Theory
of Identical Elements: This
theory believes that transfer only occurs if there are identical elements
present in both situations. (Chauhan 1978) The elements may be facts, skills,
or methods. Fact may be colour, length, number, height, etc. skill includes;
football playing, driving, playing guitar. while method may be effective way of
teaching a concept, or problem solving. These mean that the curriculum should
focus on the society so as to enable it impart knowledge that will be
appropriate in solving the contemporary issues. Experiential teaching method
employs proffering solution to real life problems in school. This enables
learners to solve similar problems at homes. Experiential Teaching approach
will therefore apply this theory of identical element to impart knowledge in
science and technologies that will assist children solve contemporary problems
within the learners’ category and ability.
3. Formal
Discipline: This theory focuses on the mind. It believes that the
learning/training the mind receives through education would have automatic
transfer effect on out-of-school situation and on practical problems associated
with daily existence. (Nwachukwu 1989) The theory emphasizes on the need to
provide hard intellectual work to the learner to train his mental faculties (Nwachukwu
1989). From the above foregoing theories, it implies that education is sterile
where there is no maximum provision for transfer of learning to occur.
Educators have the responsibility to facilitate, direct, moderate, and guide
the learning process to possess the much needed transfer effects. Transfer can
be enhanced by the acquisition of ability of learning to learn.(Fenwick 2000)
This enables the learner to discover creative ways of solving variety of
problems. Moreover learners can discover variety of ways of solving problems
only through active involvement in construction and reconstruction of meaning.
They should be involved in all aspects of classroom activities. This will
enable them develop the skills in solving problem which will later be
transferred to out-of-school/classroom. Active participation in classroom
activities is only guaranteed by the use of experiential teaching method. If a
child is taught personal cleanliness using the method, the child should be able
to practice regular brushing of mouth, hand washing before and after eating, or
after visiting of toilets and at all other critical times. A child who learnt
factors that supports combustion, should apply the technique at home while
boiling water or lighting a match. Educators should avail themselves the
knowledge, which those theories of transfer present in order to develop in
their pupils the strategies to transfer all knowledge transmitted in the
classroom to the wider society. The curriculum and teachers’ choice of
instructional delivery approach must make provision for transfer of learning to
occur. Experiential teaching method presents educators with maximum
opportunities to ensure that knowledge transfer occurs. Educators should
utilize the opportunity offered by the adoption and utilization of this
teaching approach in order to ensure that children transfer knowledge acquired
in classroom in Basic Science and technology lessons to the wider society. This
is the only way Basic science and technology will become useful by serving as
tool for industry and solution to problems.
Theory of transposition: This theory is based on the Gestalt theory of
learning. This theory of transfer of learning states that transfer of learning
occurs because of perceptual similarities between situations and that it is in
the form of generalization that concepts or insights that are developed in one
learning situation are usable in others (Chanhan 1978) Transposition has also
been called pattern of experience. Based
on the Gestalt’s theory of cognitive development, to learn is to form or to
complete a Gestalt pattern or configuration which has meaning. The processes of
the mental operations involved are as follows.
* There is grouping, re-organisation,
and structurization of materials
* Process of inner relatedness of form
and size.
* Inner structure
* Consistent thinking
This
theory is in line with the experiential teaching theory as both of them
consider past experiences in one situation enhancing learning in the new
environment. Secondly, the theories consider processing of inner structure.
This occurs through reflection on both the past and the present concrete
actions under taken. By consistent thinking, the learner reflects to relate past
and present events.
Theory of learning to learn:
Improvement in learning ability by individuals or learners results if the
individuals practice a series of tasks of a related or similar task regularly.
For example, if pupils regularly practice classification of living and
non-living things each time topic related to classification in the class room
with the teacher using authentic objects, the pupils can master classification of
objects so well that they can easily classify any other object other than living
and non-living things both at schools and their homes. Moreover if learners
solves problems related to velocity regularly for some days, they will master
it so well that they will not only solve problems relating to velocity but they
become progressively more efficient in it and can solve related problems in
acceleration and can know their differences with speed. The progressive
improvement is brought about by a type of transfer known as ‘learning to
learn”. Learning to-learn ranges from rote memory to problem solving. The
similarity or relationship involved appear to be learning general approaches or
modes of attack, becoming familiar with situation and learning related classes
of materials (Chauhan 1978). This therefore means that teachers can foster transfer
of learning in their learners by providing them opportunities to constantly
learn or practice learning how to learn. For this to occur, teachers must adopt
an activity based teaching approach such as experiential teaching method in
instructional delivery. Experiential teaching approach is unique and can foster
learning-to-learn as it encourages learning through play using real or
authentic objects that learner can easily locate in their local environment