1.0 INTRODUCTION
Only
quality feed together with proper hygiene, potable water and management can
ensure the production of nutritious animal products with desired organoleptic properties
(Saxena, 2008). Keeping farm animals healthy is necessary to obtain healthy
animal products. For the last decade the use of additives of natural origin in
animal and human nutrition has been encouraged. Numerous researches focused on
the clarification of the biochemical structures and physiological functions of
various feed additives like probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids and plant
extracts.
Herbs, spices and their
extracts were already used thousands of years ago in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India,
China and old Greece, where they were appreciated for their specific aroma and
various medicinal properties (Greathead, 2003). When discussing the use of
herbs and spices as feed additives, we can hardly rely only on old believes
about health impact of certain herbs and spices or their active components. We
need a scientific proof of their beneficial effect on health and performance of
the animals to justify their use. The technological progress enables us to more
easily determine the structure and function of yet unidentified active molecules
of plant origin.
To
gain advantageous effects of herbs and spices, they can be added to feed as
dried plants or parts of plants and as extracts. The composition of extracts
from the same plant depends on the method of extraction and the properties of
the extraction solvent used. Depending on the chemical characteristics of
extraction solvents we can extract only certain molecules. There is also a
difference between purified and unpurified extracts. Unpurified extracts contain
a number of different molecules extracted with certain solvent, which can
affect the action of each other, while purified extracts contain only one
active component. The purified active molecules extracted from plants can be
sometimes substituted by synthetic naturally identical molecules. Plants mainly
contain one or some predominant active molecules (secondary metabolites), which
are responsible for certain biological effects. The amount of these molecules
varies depending on the variety of plant, growing conditions, harvest time etc.
When we need the effect of a specific active component, it is more efficient to
use a purified molecule alone than a dried plant or unpurified extract. But we
have to be aware, that the potency of an unpurified extract often exceeds the
potency of a purified one because of synergistic effect among the molecules in
it. When talking about plant extracts, we must mention also essential oils.
These are extracts of vaporous oils of strong taste and smell, which are still
usually extracted by distillation with steam. Essential oils are very potent
molecules and must be used in small quantities. Adversely they can affect the
function of intestinal micro flora, can cause allergies, suppress feed intake
and can be stored in tissues. With the proper usage, most of essential oils are
recognized as GRAS (generally recognized as safe). Today the market offers
different extracts of certain aromatic plants, combinations of extracts of
different plants, purified active components or combinations of purified active
components and synthesized active molecules (naturally identical) (Indresh,
2007).
Table 1: Often used plants, its active
components and functions (Loo and Richard, 1992; Charalambous, 1994; Kamel,
2000).
|
Plant
|
Used
parts
|
Mayor active
component
|
Function
|
|
AROMATIC
SPICES
|
|
|
|
|
Nutmeg
|
Seed
|
Sabinene
|
Digestion stimulant,
antidiarrhoeic
|
|
Cinnamon
|
Bark
|
Cimetaldehyde
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant antiseptic
|
|
Cloves
|
Cloves
|
Eugenol
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant antiseptic
|
|
Cardamom
|
Seed
|
Cinecol
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant
|
|
Coriander
|
Leaves, seed
|
Linalool
|
Digestion stimulant
|
|
Cumin
|
Seed
|
Cuminaldehyde
|
Digestive,carminative,
galactagogue
|
|
Anise
|
Fruit
|
Anethol
|
Digestion stimulant,
galactagogue
|
|
Celery
|
Fruit, leaves
|
Phtalides
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant
|
|
Parsley
|
Leaves
|
Apiol
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant
|
|
Fenugreek
|
Seed
|
Trigonelline
|
Appetite stimulant
|
|
PUNGENT
SPICES
|
|
|
|
|
Capsicum
|
Fruit
|
Capsicin
|
Digestion stimulant
|
|
Pepper
|
Fruit
|
Piperine
|
Digestion stimulant
|
|
Horseradish
|
Root
|
Allyl izotiocianat
|
Appetite stimulant
|
|
Mustard
|
Seed
|
Allyl izotiocianat
|
Appetite stimulant
|
|
Ginger
|
Rizom
|
Zingerone
|
Gastric stimulant
|
|
Garlic
|
Bulb
|
Allicin
|
Digestion stimulant, antiseptic
|
|
HERBS
|
|
|
|
|
Rosemary
|
Leaves
|
Cinecol
|
Digestion stimulant,
antiseptic, antioxidant
|
|
Thyme
|
Whole plant
|
Thymol
|
Digestion stimulant,
antiseptic, antioxidant
|
|
Sage
|
Leaves
|
Cinecol
|
Digestion stimulant,
antiseptic, carminative
|
|
Laurel
|
Leaves
|
Cinecol
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant, antiseptic
|
|
Mint
|
Leaves
|
Menthol
|
Appetite and digestion
stimulant, antiseptic
|
Source: Loo and
Richard, 1992; Charalambous, 1994; and Kamel, 2000
The
effect of active components from herbs and spices depends largely on the dosage
used. No effect hand, large amounts can be even toxic.
The
search for nutritive antibiotic alternatives in EU and increased awareness and
concern of the consumers, further encouraged the precise researches on the
possibilities of plant extract use in animal nutrition. The main scope in
animal husbandry – to ensure good performance of farm animals and get quality
animal products, can be achieved only with the effort to keep the animals
healthy. In this aspect, herbs and spices are not just appetite and digestion
stimulants, but can, with impact on other physiological functions, help to
ensure good health and welfare of the animals, what can positively affect their
performance.
1.0
POSSIBLE USE OF
HERBS AND SPICES
1.1
HERBS AND SPICES
AS APPETITE AND DIGESTION STIMULANTS
When
considering supplementing the feed with herbs and spices or their extracts to
stimulate the appetite, we have to know the taste preferences of different
animal species. Janz et al. (2007) found that pigs preferred the feed
supplemented with garlic or rosemary over the feed supplemented with oregano or
ginger. Furthermore, Jugl-Chizzola et al. (2006) noticed that weaned
pigs consumed significantly less feed if it was supplemented with thyme or
oregano. If pigs in this experiment had the possibility to choose among feed
with or without above mentioned spices, they had chosen the unsupplemented
feed. The spices known for their appetite stimulant effect are cinnamon,
cloves, cardamom, laurel and mint (Loo and Richard, 1992).
Due
to the wide variety of active components, different herbs and spices affect
digestion processes differently. Most of them stimulate the secretion of
saliva. Curcuma, cayenne pepper, ginger, anis, mint, onions, fenugreek, and
cumin enhance the synthesis of bile acids in the liver and their excretion in
bile, what beneficially effects the digestion and absorption of lipids. Most of
the prelisted spices stimulate the function of pancreatic enzymes (lipases, amylases
and proteases), some also increase the activity of digestive enzymes of gastric
mucosa (Srinivasan, 2005). Besides the effect on bile synthesis and enzyme
activity, extracts from herbs and spices accelerate the digestion and shorten
the time of feed/food passage through the digestive tract (Platel and
Srinivasan, 2001; Suresh and Srinivasan, 2007).
1.2
ANTIMICROBIAL
ACTION OF HERBS AND SPICES
Feed
supplements with growth promoting activity increase stability of feed and
beneficially influence the gastrointestinal ecosystem mostly through growth
inhibition of pathogenic microorganism’s growth. Due to improved health status
of digestive system, animals are less exposed to the toxins of microbiological
origin. Consequently herbs and spices help to increase the resistance of the
animals exposed to different stress situations and increase the absorption of
essential nutrients, thus improving the growth of the animals (Windisch et
al., 2008).
Numerous
secondary metabolites formed by plants serve as defence agents against
physiological and environmental stressors, predators and pathogenic
microorganisms. Several in vitro studies showed strong antimicrobial activity
of certain plant extracts against Gram− and Gram+ bacteria. Pasqa et al. (2006)
found a change in long chain fatty acid profile in the membranes of E. coli
grown in the presence of limonene or cinnamaldehyde. Similar observations were
made with Salomonella enterice grown in the presence of carvacrol or
eugenol and with Bronchotrix thermosphacta grown in the presence of either
limonene, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol or eugenol. In the case of Pseudomonas
fluorescens in Staphylococcus aureus none of the tested
phytochemicals changed the fatty acid profile. The changes in fatty acid
composition can affect surviving ability of microorganisms.
The
studies measuring hydrophobicity of E. coli (test for measuring the
ability of microbial attachment) showed a large increase of
hydrophobicity of E. coli grown in the presence of St. John’s wort or
Chinese cinnamon and a moderate increase when medium was supplemented
with thyme or Ceylon cinnamon. The differences in hydrophobicity
were in good correlation with MIC50 values (minimal inhibitory
concentration). This confirms the fact that herbs and spices act as
antimicrobial agents by changing the characteristics of cell membranes,
and causing ion leakage, thus making microbes less virulent
(Windisch et al., 2008). The exact antimicrobial action of herbs
and spices in in vivo situations is hard to evaluate, because of
the very complex and balanced microbial populations in gastrointestinal
tract and the interaction of active components from herbs and spices with
other nutrients. Castillo et al. (2006) reported that the mixture
of cinnamaldehyde, capsicum oleoresin and carvacrol enhances the growth
of lactobacilli, and so increases the ratio of lactobacilli to
enterobacteria. So herbs and spices do not posses only the antimicrobial
activity, but also modulate the composition of microbial population by
prebiotic activity.
2.3 ANTI - INFLAMMATORY ACTION
Extracts
of curcuma, red pepper, black pepper, cumin, cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, mint and
ginger showed anti-inflammatory effect in the studies on rats (Srinivasan, 2005;
Manjunatha in Srinivasan, 2006). The major active molecules with
anti-inflammatory action are terpenoids and flavonoids. These molecules
suppress the metabolism of inflammatory prostaglandins. The most known herbs
and spices with anti-inflammatory potential in our area are chamomile,
marigold, liquorice and anis (Craig, 2001).
2.4 ANTIOXIDATIVE ACTION
Many
active components of herbs and spices can prevent lipid peroxidation through
quenching free radicals or through activation of antioxidant enzymes like superoxide
dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. Main
molecules responsible for the antioxidative properties of herbs and spices are
phenolic
substances (flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins, proanthocianidins, phenolic
acids, phenolic terpenes) and some vitamins (E, C and A). Often used herbs rich
in phenolics are: rosemary, thyme, oregano, sage, green tea, chamomile, ginko,
dandelion and marigold (Halliwell et al., 1995; Craig, 2001;
Ćetković et al., 2004; Škerget et al., 2005; BakIrel et al.,
2008; Fasseas et al., 2008).
Herbs
and spices can protect the feed against oxidative deterioration during storage.
This is a widely used practice in pet food and human food industry. The herb commonly
used for feed/food preservation is rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis). It
can be used alone or in combination with tocopherols or synthetic antioxidants
(Jacobsen et al., 2008).
2.5 IMMUNOSTIMULANT FUNCTION
The
immune system generally benefits from the herbs and spices rich in flavonoids,
vitamin C and carotenoids. The plants containing molecules which possess immunostimulatory
properties are echinacea, liquorice, garlic and cat’s claw. These plants can
improve the activity of lymphocytes, macrophages and NK cells; they increase phagocytosis
or stimulate the interpheron synthesis (Craig, 1999).
3 THE USE OF HERBS AND SPICES IN NUTRITION OF
MONGRASTIC ANIMALS
3.1 POULTRY
How
to replace antibiotic growth promoters is also a question for the poultry industry.
Some studies on plant extracts are showing promising results. Çabuk et al.
(2006) measured production parameters of broilers which were supplemented by
a mixture of oregano, laurel, sage, anis and citrus essential oils. The mixture
of essential oils significantly improved feed conversion, what can be
attributed to more effective availability of nutrients due to the changes in
intestinal ecosystem.
Lippens
et al. (2005) tested the efficacy of a mixture of cinnamon, oregano,
thyme, cayenne pepper and citrus extracts and a mixture of plant extracts and
organic acids in comparison to nutritive antibiotic avilamicin in broiler chickens.
Chickens supplemented with plant extracts reached significantly higher body
weight than the ones in the control or avilamicin group. Higher body weight was
a consequence of increased feed consumption. Feed conversion in group fed plant
extracts was 0.4% better than in the group with avilamicin and 2.9% better than
in the control group. The authors noticed no synergistic effect between plant
extracts and organic acids.
Resistance
of coccidia to currently used coccidiostatics to treat coccidiosis represents a
serious problem in poultry industry. The use of plant extracts to treat
coccidiosis is not a new approach. When searching for the best natural extract
to treat coccidiosis, we have to take into account that the extract needs to be
at least partially soluble in lipids to penetrate the cellular membrane,
because coccidia are located inside the cells. Two Chinese plants, Dichroa
febrifuga and Sophora flavescens are rich in alkaloids which are
effective in treating coccidiosis (Youn in Noh, 2001). As infections with Emeria
tenela include also lipid peroxidation in the intestine, herbs and spices
with strong antioxidant potency may represent a good supportive treatment. In
one of the latest studies Naidoo et al. (2008) studied the capacity of
four African plants which would be appropriate to treat coccidiosis: leaves of Combretum
woodii, leaves and stem of Artemisia afra, a whole plant and seeds of Vitis
vinifera. Extracts of all chosen plants improved the feed conversion to the
same extent as coccidiostatic toltrazuril. The best effect was seen with Tulbaghia
violacea, which also partially lowered the shedding of oocysts.
The
use of herbs and spices as antioxidants is not important only for the health of
the animals, but also for the oxidative stability of their products. The effect
of oregano essential oil on oxidative stability of chicken and Supplementation of
turkeys with 200 mg/kg of oregano essential oil significantly decreased lipid
peroxidation of cooked and fresh meat during refrigerated storage (Botsoglou et
al., 2003b). Essential oil of oregano also efficiently preserved the quality
of chicken meat during frozen storage (Botsoglou et al., 2003a).
Extracts from herbs and spices in combination with vitamins C and E even more
effectively prevent lipid peroxidation in tissues, what was shown in the
studies on chickens and turkeys (Papageorgiou et al., 2003; Young et
al., 2003). At this time the use of plant extracts instead synthetic or
semi-synthetic antioxidants represents higher economical costs, however, this
could be avoided with systematic intensified growing of needed plants and new
technological processes of extraction. The colorants for increasing yolk colour
in laying hens or skin colour in broilers in intensive production can be of
natural (carotenoids) or synthetic origin. Often used forage plants rich in
carotenoids are maize and alfalfa. Besides these there are several other plants
used for isolation of natural pigments like tagetes and red pepper. The main
yellow pigments in tagetes are zeaxantin and lutein, while red pepper contains
two important red pigments – capsantin and capsorubin. The extract from tagetes
colours the yolk three times less effectively in comparison with the synthetic
apo-ester of carotenic acid. Pigments from natural origin also degrade during the
feed storage up to 30% (Sirri et al., 2007). Nevertheless, pigments
obtained from tagetes or calendula species and red pepper are very suitable as
yolk colorants in organic farming.
3.2 PIGS
In
the pig production, most problems can be expected in the time of weaning.
Weaning can be accompanied by infections, especially with enterotoxic Escherichia
coli. The use of herbs and spices in piglet nutrition can reduce the
incidence of infections. Results from Roselli et al. (2007) showed that
alicin from garlic protects intestinal cells from increased permeability of
membrane in pigs infected with E. coli. Garlic also contains active
substances which suppress the action of fungi and viruses (Zigger, 2001) and
improve the feed intake and daily weight gain of piglets (Janz et al.,
2007). Cinnamaldehyde, an active component of cinnamon, possesses antibacterial
properties. Zigger (2001) observed larger feed intake and live weight gain of
weaned pigs fed feed supplemented with garlic and cinnamon extracts. The
mortality due to intestinal disorders dropped from 3.9 to 1.2%. Namkung et
al. (2004) found that a mixture of cinnamon, thyme and oregano extracts
inhibited the growth of coliform bacteria.
A brown algae Ascophyllum nodosum could
be a good feed supplement with growth promoting activity of pigs infected with E.
coli (Turner et al., 2002).
Combination
of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde and capsicum oleoresin beneficially effected
gastrointestinal ecosystem and gastric emptying of weaned pigs (Manzanilla et
al., 2004). The same mixture was tested for its antioxidative properties in
our laboratory. The mixture effectively protected pig’s blood lymphocytes
against oxidative DN A damage at the concentration of 271.2 mg/ kg of feed. Its
effect was comparable to that of 90.4 mg/ kg of vitamin E. The concentration of
spice mixture supplemented to pigs in this study was not sufficient to fully prevent
lipid peroxidation induced by high intake of lightly oxidizable PUFA.
Frankič
et al. (in press) studied antioxidant capacity of propylene glycol
extracts of Calendula officinalis (Calendula off. 1 –
extract from petals, 3 ml/day; Calendula off. 2 – extract from
whole flowers tops, 3 ml/day) and vitamin E (38.4 mg/day) in the case of
oxidative stress induced by high PUFA intake in pigs. The extracts effectively prevented
oxidative DN A damage in peripheral lymphocytes (measured as % DN A in the tail
of the comet and OTM (Olive tail moment), but did not prevent lipid peroxidation,
measured by 8-OHdG (8 hidroxydeoxyguanosine) (Table 2).
Although
most studies concerning the effect of herbs and spices in pig production have
been conducted on piglets, Allan et al. (2005) carried out an experiment
on swine. Swine were fed 1000 ppm of dried oregano leaves and flowers enriched
with 500 g/kg of oregano essential oil. Observed beneficial effects of oregano
supplementation were: lower mortality rate, less culling during lactation
period, shorter service interval, more live born and less stillborn piglets.
3.3 RUMINANTS
Herbs
and spices have been introduced also to ruminant nutrition. Microbial ecosystem
in the rumen is composed from complex anaerobic microbial population
of bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, methanogeneous arhea and bacterifagi. Numerous metabolites
produced in rumen during microbial fermentation affect the basic digestive and
metabolic functions and productivity of the host. Researchers have been
searching for new possibilities to modulate the microbial fermentation in the
rumen. The main goal of manipulating the rumen fermentation is to increase the
effectiveness of digestion and metabolism of nutrients, to increase the
productivity of the animals and to suppress the undesirable processes as
methanogenesis. In intensive farming systems the feed additives, including antibiotics,
were used to increase the production of milk, meat and wool. The ban on
antibiotic use in Europe increases the production costs what triggered the need
to search for antibiotic alternatives also in ruminant nutrition.
There
are numerous studies showing beneficial effects of herbs and spices on feed
intake, immune functions and health, rumen fermentation and productivity of
calves, dairy cows, heifers and also beef cattle (Kraszewski et al.,
2002; Greathead, 2003; Wawrzynczak et al. 2000; Cardozo et al. 2006).
There are some data of the positive effect of plant supplements in nutrition of
sheep and goats (Butter et al., 1999). Extracts of yucca plant contain
saponnins and glico-components which are responsible for the increase of rumen
fermentation and in some cases for reduction of ammonium synthesis (Ryan, P.
and Quinn, 2008), T.:Kudke et al. (1999) supplemented calves with powder
of Azadirachta indica tree. Supplemented calves had higher weight gain
than unsupplemented ones. The unsupplemented group had much higher incidence of
parasite infections.
Gladine
et al. (2007) tested the antioxidant effect of marigold, grape, rosemary
and citrus extracts in sheep. Lipid peroxidation was induced by continuous
infusion of linseed oil into the duodenum. The extracts were applied directly
into rumen through the rumen cannula. The results showed that all tested plant
extracts kept their antioxidant capacity in vivo in sheep. The most
bioefficient in limiting lipid peroxidation was marigold extract.
Cardozo
et al. (2006) studied the effect of alfalfa extract, anise, capsicum, and
a mixture of cinnamaldehyde end eugenol on ruminal fermentation in beef
heifers. The results indicated that tested concentrations of cinnamaldehyde and
eugenol mixture, anise oil and capsicum oil may be used as modifiers of rumen
fermentation in beef production systems. Same authors tested six natural plant extracts
(garlic, cinnamon, anise, yucca, oregano and capsicum extract) and three
secondary plant metabolites (cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, anethole) at five doses
and two different pH (7.0 and 5.5) to determine their effect on in vitro microbial
fermentation using ruminal fluid of heifers (Cardozo et al., 2005).
Results demonstrated that the effect of herbs and spices on ruminal
fermentation in beef cattle may differ depending on ruminal pH. At Ph 5.5,
garlic, capsicum, yucca and cinnamaldehyde altered ruminal fermentation in
favour of propionate, which is more energetically efficient.
Results
obtained in the research of Benchaar et al. (2007) showed limited
effects of 750 mg/day of essential oil mixture (thymol, eugenol,
vanillin, guaiacol and limonene) on nutrient utilization, ruminal
fermentation, and milk performance of cows fed diets containing alfalfa
or corn silage as a sole forage source. Polish researchers showed
that 2% of mixture of Urtica dioica, Pradix teraxci, Agrimonia
eupatoria, Fructus carvi and Matrica Chamonilla improves the
quality of milk (Kraszewski et al., 2002).
Tannins,
the secondary plant metabolites found in stem, wood, leaves, fruits and seeds
of many plant species can positively affect the protein digestion in ruminants.
Tannins bind to proteins and form complexes which pass trough the rumen
undegraded. These proteins which pass the microbial degradation in the rumen
are then successfully utilized by the animal and provide the proteins necessary
especially in the special physiological states (like early lactation) and in
the cases when feed is not of the best quality (Waghorn et al., 1990).
Tannins also prevent bloat of the rumen (Butter et al., 1999) and
possess antihelmitic properties (Barry and McNabb, 1999).
Extracts
from herbs and spices help to prevent and alleviate different kinds of health
problems. They are effective in treatment of endometritis (inflammation of the endometrium)
in cows. Esparza-Borges and Ortiz-Márquez (1996) evaluated the effect of
extrats of garlic (Allium sativum, L), eucalypt (Eucalyptus
globulus, Labill.) and Gnaphalium conoideum on acute endometritis of
Holstein cows. The most effective of all extracts was the garlic extract,
however, also eucalypt worked beneficially.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The
main scope of animal production is to ensure the high productivity, healthy
animals and quality animal products, which are stable and appropriate for further
processing. In this aspect, herbs and spices are not just appetite and
digestion stimulants, but can, with impact on other physiological functions,
help to sustain good health and welfare of the animals and improve their performance.
Current studies show promising results regarding the use of phytochemicals as
growth and production promoters. There is still a need to clarify the
phytochemical composition and the mechanisms of action for many herbs, spices
and their extracts and furthermore, to assess the appropriate dose that should
be safely used in specific circumstances and animal species.
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