Political realism is a school of thought in
international relations which believes that national interest and security
takes precedence over other social ideals and ethics of society. Political
realism focuses on state security and power above everything else. The realist
school believes that the imperfection of the nature of the work is a reflection
of the imperfection in human nature. This imperfection has created a world of
interest and goals whose evident tools of management is rooted in conflict. It
holds therefore that moral principals cannot be the yardstick for measuring
relationship rather, it must be based on the balancing of interests, realignment
of ideals and settlement of conflicts as they arise.
Early
realists like Henry Carr, and Hans Morganthan argued that states are self
centred, power-seeking and rational actors who seek to maximize their security
wellbeing and chances of survive. They view co-operation between state as a
strategy aimed at maximizing the security of each individual state as opposed
to any other idealistic reasons. Similarly, any act of war must be based on
self interest aimed at economic, military or political advantage to the state.
The realist school point at the Second World War as an vindication of their
theory.
Classical
writers such as Thucydides Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes are often regarded as
the “Founding Fathers” of political realism by contemporary writers. This works
advocated the ultimate use of power by the state in pursuit of its goals and
the realization of their objectives. Their thoughts popularised the use of
power, not as a means to an end, but as the end itself.
Political
realism believes that politics, like society in general, is governed by
objective laws that have their roots in human nature. To improve society
therefore, it is necessary to understand the laws by which society lives. The
operation of these laws being imperious to our designs and preferences, men
will challenge them even at the risk of failure. Political realism believing as
it does, in the objectivity of the law of politics, must also believe in the
possibility of developing a rational theory which must reflect these objective
laws. The theory of political realism holds the following key assumptions:
1. The
internal system is in constant state of anarchy. These is no actor above states
capable of regulating their interest and behaviour. State must arrive at
relations with other states on their own rather being dictated to by a higher
controlling entity.
2. In
pursuit of national security, states strive to attain as many resources as
possible. The means of such attainment is largely regulated.
3. States
are rational unitary actors, each moving towards their own national interest.
There is a general distrust of long term co-operation or alliance.
4. The
overriding national interest of each state is its national security and
survival. This must be protected at all cost.
5. Relations
between states are determined by their levels of power derived primarily from
their military and economic capabilities.
6. The
interjection of morality and values into international relations causes
reckless commitments, diplomatic rigidity and escalation of conflicts.
7. Sovereign
states are the principal actor in the international system and special
attention is afforded to large powers as they have the most influence on the
international state. International institutions, non-governmental organizations,
multi-national corporations, individual and other sub-state or translate actors
are viewed as having little independent influence.
While
political idealism equates a statement’s political and philosophical ideals
with his personal sympathies, the political realist does not. It is necessary
to distinguish between official responsibility and personal wish. While Abraham
Lincoln did wish American blood to be shed by fellow Americans, he nevertheless
approved the civil war for what he hoped would be an ultimate greater goal for
the good of America.
Neville
Chamberlain’s politics of appeasement was good intentioned. He sought to
preserve mankind from war and yet his level headedness brought exactly the
opposite result. His successor, Winston Churchill, a realist, understood the
current of the time and marched on headlong to confront the Nazi menace with a
superior and moral political quality devoid of emotion and prevarication.
In
sum, political realism believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but
rather self centred and competitive. This perspective view human nature as
selfish and conflictual unless given the right conditions under which they
could co-exist. They believe further that state are inherently aggressive and
are obsessed with security, and that territorial expansion is only constrained
by opposing power or powers. The aggressive build up inherent in security
obsession leads to its own variant of security dilemma where the desire to
increase one’s security can bring along greater instability at the
international level as the opponents continue to build up their own security in
response. The scenario created here is that security and arms build up becomes
a zero sum grave where only relative gains can be made.
In
evaluating the realist approach to international relations, it is necessary to
note that there are not universal principal which all states can use to guide
their actions. Instead, a state must always be aware of the actions of other
states around it and must use a pragmatic approach to resole the problems as
they arise. Notable proponents of the realism school include Sim Tzu and Mao
Tse Tung (China); Chanakya (India); Thucydides (Greek) Cardinal Richeln and
Charles De Gralle (France) Nichollo Machiavelli (Italy); Thomas Hobbes (English)
Fredrick the Great (Prussia) Otto Von Bismarch (Adolf Hitler (Germany) Hans
Morgan Than, Henry Kistinger and Ronals Reagan (US); Joseph Stalin (Russia).
Political Idealism
This school of thought believes that a
rational and moral political order, derived from abstract principles and
universally acceptable can be achieved in international relations. It points
out the essential and inherent good in human and nature and believes that such
cannot allow man to destroy himself. Political idealism blame the problem of
conflict on imperfect social order, lack of knowledge and understanding and
obsolete social institutions which have been unable to live up to the goals for
which they were established.
Also
known as liberalism, the idealist school hold that state determinants of state
behaviour. Unlike political realism where the state is seen as a military
actor, liberalism allows for plurality in state actions. Thus, preferences will
vary from state to state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system
or type of government. Liberalism also holds that interaction between state is
not limited to the political sphere (sometimes referred to as high politics)
but also the economic sphere (sometimes referred to as low politics) whether
through commercial firms, organizations or individuals. Thus, there are plenty
of opportunities for co-operation and broader notions of power such as cultural
capital where the acceptance of a particular culture by others could lead to
the spread of such culture across national boundaries. The influence of
American films, for instance, has led to the popularity of American culture in
many parts of the world. This can create market for American goods worldwide.
Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through co-operations and
interdependence thereby leading to the achievement of global place and
understanding.
Woodrow
Wilson personified the liberal theory of international relations. His
idealistic thoughts are embodied in his 14 points speech which culminated in
the creation of the League of Nations.
The
distinctive characteristic of the idealistic school is their belief in human
progress and a similar conviction that man is capable of living in peace with
his fellow man despite several disagreements and misunderstandings. They
believe that despite the two great wars of the 20th century, the
global system could still be transformed into a fundamentally more peaceful and
just world order. Idealism holds that great events are taking place in human
relationship and such developments are bound to create new ways of thinking
that would ultimately abhor wars and violence in inter state affairs. They
point at such events as the awakening of democracy and the democratic spirit
around the world, the growth of “the international wind” the development and
growth of the United Nations the good works of men of peace or the
enlightenment spread by their own teaching as having the capacity for positive
transformation. The idealist feel that they have a duty, as students of international
relations to assist this march of progress and overcome the ignorance,
prejudice and ill-will of the past which had stood on the path of effective
global interaction.
Idealism
is also marked by the prominent role played by international law and
international organizations in its conception and policy formulation. One of
the most enduring tenets of modern idealist thinking is the “democracy peace
theory” which holds that states with similar models of democratic government do
not fight one another.
Idealism
transcends the left-right political spectrum. Idealists can include human right
campaigners and other defenders of ethical conduct in human relations. Idealism
may find itself in opposition to realism though the two may relate with each
other without engaging in serious conflict.
The
idealistic school suffered a crisis of confidence following the failure of the
league which led to the out break of the World War II. The optimism engendered
by the league mandate at the end of World War I was robust enough to convince
idealist that the world at last, had found an outlet, for the resolution of
conflict and international problems, without necessarily going to war.
However, since the end of the 2nd world
war, the united nations has taken the centre stage as the global talk-shop, and
despite four decades of a cold war between the East and West, the world have
not witnessed another major global conflict. The relative success of the UN is
believed by the idealists to have reduce global conflicts into minor skirmishes
and armed conflicts in remote parts that on the whole could not be considered
serious threats to the peace of the world. The absence of a major global
conflict since 1945 is seen as a boast to the idealist philosophy.
New
conservatism has drawn from liberalism its focus on such issues as the
promotion of universal values, such values include democracy, human rights,
free trade, women’s rights and protection of the minority. Also conservatism
encourages the use of force or the threat of force as acceptable and morally
worthy in the pursuit of these goals. It however de-emphasise the preservation
of international institutions and treaties in the pursuit of goals of state.