1. WAR
1.1 Introduction
and Background
1.2 Total
War
Total war is a war of unlimited scope in
which a belligerent engage in the mobilization of all available resources at
one’s disposal whether human, industrial, agricultural, military, natural,
technological or otherwise in order to entirely destroy the enemy or at best
render beyond use the capacity of the enemy to continue its resistance or to
inflict damage. The practice of total war has been in use for centuries but it
was only in the middle to late 19th century that total war was
identified by scholars as a separate class of warfare. In total war, there is
no differentiation between combatants (civilians). Every human resources,
civilians and soldiers alike are considered to be part of the belligerent
effort.
The earliest example of a well documented
total war was the Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta form 431-404 BC.
This war lasted for several years and consumed vast economic and human
resources of both sides. Atrocities were committed on a scale never seen before
in war. The result of this war was that the entire Greek world was reshaped. A
region once known for its wealth and prosperity was weakened and subdued, the
entire land laid waste. Edward Gunn holds the view that the Greek world never
recovered from the effect of the war to this day.
During the middle Age, the Mongols in the
14th century practiced total war. Many conflicts that raged in
Europe during the 16th century took the characteristics of total
war. The thirty year war, 1618-1648 in which all European power got involved in
one way or the other was a total war. This saw to the rise in the size and
training as well as maintenance of the armed forces of sovereign states.
The First World War saw the complete
mobilization of the whole of Europe. Young men were pulled away form production
jobs and other engagement to serve in the armed forces. The whole economies of
the participating countries were geared towards the war efforts. All forms of
strategies were employed to facilitate the capitulation of the other side.
The Second World War can be considered the
classical total war of the modern era. The level of national mobilization of
resources on all sides was unprecedented. There was large scale conscription,
active targeting of civilians and civilians property, the mobilization of
armies naval and air forces clearly marked total war on multi-continental
scale. The Second World War saw the total mobilization of the entire population
men, women and children for full participation in the war.
Since, the end of the Second World War, no
industrial nation have fought a total war because of the availability of
weapons of mass destruction. These weapons are so destructive that their use
would offset the advantage of victory. Total war in an era of nuclear weapon
would last only hours or days at most. By the end of 1950s the cold war
atmosphere between the US and the USSR has seen to the large scale build up of
nuclear weapons aimed at each other. Strategically, the balance of destructive
capabilities posed by each side known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
The underlying motive here is that a nuclear attack by one side would result in
a nuclear counter strike by the other.
During the cold war, the superpowers
avoided open conflict with one another. This is because of the realization that
an open confrontation could easily escalate into what may involve the use of
nuclear weapons. The superpowers instead resorted to proxy wars, military build
ups and diplomatic confrontations.
1.3 Limited war
A limited war is a conflict in which the
belligerents do not expand al the available resources at their disposal in the
prosecution of the war. Such resources could be human, industrial,
agricultural, military, natural etc. Limited war is often a war of specific
nature. In a limited war, there is conscious effort to preserve resources for
other purpose since the war is not seen as an end in itself. In a limited war,
there are specific targets of attack and all such targets must be military
targets or installations. Such targets may include ammunition dumps and
factories, the armonsy, supply networks of the army including bridges and
airports as well as other areas of considered to be of strategic importance to
country’s successful execution of war. Non military institutions, water resources,
schools, hospitals, religious places and artifacts, industrial economic
concerns must be spared.
The aim of limited war is not often to
bring about a total surrender of the other side but to undermine the
operational capabilities of the enemy, as this could bring about a more speedy
settlement of the conflict. In a limited war, combatants are at greater pains
to adhere strictly to the laws of war and armed conflict because those who
flout this or engage in atrocities are bound to face the consequence of their
action at the assertion of hostilities.
Limited war often takes a shorter duration
since the objective of the war is often of a limited nature. The six-day war
between Israel and Egypt in 1967 is a classic example of a limited war. It need
be pointed out however that limited wars could last considerably longer for
instance Korean War. In a limited war, the element of reciprocity is vital.
Each side must act in anticipation of the behaviour or response of the other
side.
1.4 Cold War
A
cold war is a state of conflict between nations which does not involve direct
military action but is pursued primarily through economic and political action,
acts of espionage or conflict through surrogated (this is known as proxy wars).
The surrogates are typically state that are satellites of the principal nation
or nations allied to them or under their political influence. Proxy wars might
also connote giving military aid such as weapons, soldiers, technical advises
etc to lesser nations involved with the opposite country. The cold war is a
long time aspect of international politics although its only reached its peak
in 1945-1991 between the US and USSR.
Rome
and Cathege engaged in a cold war as far back as 146 BC over the dominance and
control of the Mediterranean. Between 627BC dn 92BC relations between the Roman
Empire and the Parthian Empire lasted for hundreds of years interspersed with
intervals of direct military confrontation and periods of cold war.
The
cold war between the US and the Soviet Union was the most popular because it
involved the use of modern equipment and techniques in the struggle for
ideological, military and technological supremacy. The post World War II cold
war was set of by the ideological and political differences of the victors of the
war. The post 1945 cold war involved extensive espionage activities between the
US and her allies on one hand and the Soviet Union and her satellite on the
other particularly as it related to nuclear weapons secrets.
The
cold war was the continuing state of political conflict, limitary tension,
economic competition and proxy wars which rose from the ashes of the Second
World War. Although there was never a direct military clash between the forces
of both sides, the conflict situation was expressed through various means.
These includes military coalitions, strategic conventional forces deployment,
extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda,
nuclear arms race, economic and technological competitions and the space race.
Although the US and USSR fought an one side as allies against the Axis power in
the second world war, they were unable to find common ground on the
configuration of the post war world. The immediate aftermath of the war was the
occupation the western parts of Europe by the two big powers. The soviet union
created the eastern bloc comprising the eastern European countries it occupied
and annexed some as parts of the great soviet socialist republics. Others were
maintained as satellite states with puppet regimes controlled by Moscow. These
satellites state were later consolidated under the Warsaw pact (1955-1991).
The
US and her allies established NATO as a defence policy aimed primarily at the
defence of the western hemisphere and the containment of the communist spread.
While the USSR concerned itself with fostering a global communist revolution,
the US and her allies were determined on a roll back policy. During the cold
war, the greater portion of the world was polarized. Some aligned with NATO
while the other joined the Warsaw pack. Others however decided to maintain a
neutral ground in the face of global polarization. These neutral countries
formed what was known as the Non-aligned movement.
The
cold war was characterized by period of relative calm and period of high
tension at the international arena. In some cases, wars were fought and in
other cases wars were averted. These include
a) The
Berlin Blockade 1948-1949
b) The
Korean War 1950-1953
c) The
Berlin Crisis 1961
d) The
Vietnam War 1959-1975
e) The
Cuban missile crisis 1962
f) The
Arab-Israeli wars 1948,
1956, 1967, and 1973
g) The
Indian Pakistani war
h) The
Soviet war in Afghanistan 1979-1989.
The
cold war conflict and numerous others not mentioned here have either the active
connivance of the superpowers or their long arms turning the screw.
In
the 1970s, both sides took measures to lessen the height of tension
characterizing relations at the time. Both sides sought the policy of détente
aimed at relieving political tension and deterring reach other from direct
military attack. It was clearly understood at this time that any form of direct
military confrontation with each other would be a “no victor no vanquished”
scenario. Such confrontation would rather guarantee them mutual annihilation if
nuclear weapons are part to use.
In the 1980s, the US under Ronald Reagan
commenced a policy of increased pressure on the Soviet Union. The pressure was
applied on several fronts-diplomatic, military, economic etc. the soviet union
at this time had began to feel the severe economic stagnation brought about by
the arms race and other heightened activities associated with the cold war
competition. In 1985, Mickhail Gorbacher ascended the Soviet throne and
declared an intention to embrace on serious fundamental changes and reforms.
His twin programme of perestroika (re-organization) and glasno sl (openness)
led to a chain of events culminating to great upheaval in the soviet union, her
satellite states and allies around the world.
In
1989, the Berlin war cause down precipitating perhaps the single greatest event
of the 20th century – the collapse of the Soviet Union which
occurred in 1991. The cold war had suddenly come to an end, leaving the US as
the dominant military power. Russia however took possession of most the nuclear
arsenal of the soviet union including her seat at the security council of the
United Nations. The cold war no doubt has been a period of remarkable events in
the global system.
1.5 Guerrilla Warfare
This
is a Spanish word meaning “little war” guerrilla warfare is an irregular
warfare which involves combat by a small group of combatants making use of
mobile military tactics in the form of ambushes and raids to confront a larger
and less mobile formal army.
The
use of guerrilla warfare has become more pronounced since the 18th
century. The concept acknowledged a conflict between armed civilians against a
powerful national army either foreign or domestic. It relies on such tactics as
ambush, sabotage, mobility. It attacks vulnerable targets in the enemy
territory. In the 2nd half of the 20th century, guerrilla
warfare has become very successful in achieving the military and political
objectives of several groups. These include the people liberation army in the
Chinese civil war, Fidel Castro in Cuba, the Communist Party of India (Maoist)
FARC in Columbia, Charles Taylor (Liberia), Yousri Museveni (Uganda).
Strategy
and Tactics: The strategy
and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small mobile
force competing against a large unwieldy one. The guerrilla focuses an
organizing in small units and may be dependant on the support of the local
population.
Principally,
the guerrilla army avoids any confrontation with large units of enemy troops
but seek to eliminate small group of soldier. This tactics is aimed at
minimizing losses because it would be suicidal to engage enemy troops in a
frontal assault. This tactics also serve to exhaust and wear down the opposing
forces. Personnel and resources are preferred targets of attack of guerrilla
units. The main focus of the guerrilla
army is to weaken the strength of the enemy, to degrade their members
and lower morale thereby forcing them if possible to withdraw.
Guerrillas
may also disguise themselves as members of the civilian population in order to
make it difficult for regular army to identify them. While conventional war
focus on territory and casualty counts, guerrilla depends on the support of the
population. This infact is a key element in the operational efficiency of the
guerrilla. The insurgents rely on the population for recruits, food, shelter,
financing and other materials. This support however has often led to serious
reprisals against the population by the regular army.
The
guerrilla force can be difficult to defeat except where certain
counter-insurgency measures are applied. Some governments or regimes apply
ruthless counter measures to check the activities of guerrilla units. This may
include murder, genocide, large scale of starvation and a massive spread of terror,
torture and executions. The totalitarian regime of Adolf Hitler is a classical
example of such ruthless suppression. Other examples include the conflict
between the Soviet Union and the Mugahadeen in Afghanistan. The soviets
implemented a ruthless policy of wastage and de-population driving over one
third of the population into exile. There was wide spread destruction of
villages, granaes, crops, herds, and irrigation system. Many modern countries
employ the man-hushing doctrine to flush out and eliminate individual guerillas
especially the leadership. Israel has used his method in dealing with Hamas
leadership in Gaza, America uses it against Al-qaeda leaders and Russia with
Checken rebels.
1.6 COUNTER GUERRILLA MEASURES
Robert Thompson in his work on
counter-insurgency submitted that defeating the guerrilla direct military
approach has often proved difficult and costly. He went ahead to offer some
guideline based on the following assumptions.
1. The
people are the key base to be secured and defended.
2. There
must be a clear counter vision that can overshadow watch or neutralize the
guerrilla vision.
3. Practical
action must be taken at the lower level to match or neutralize the guerrilla
vision.
4. Economy
of force over reliance on the use of force may alienate the population and
brand the counter-insurgency group as war mongers.
5. Big
units action may be necessary to break up significant guerrilla concentrations.
6. Aggressive
mobility: counter-insurgency groups must be aggressively mobile and through
patrols, ambushes, sweeps, cordons, road blocks etc, keep the insurgent
permanently on the run. The insurgents must not be allowed a moment of respite.
7. Ground
level embedding and integration efforts must be geared towards embedding
counter-insurgency units with local security forces and civilian elements. The
US marine used this method to great advantage in Vietnam.
8. Cultural
sensitivity: This involves familiarity with the local cultures, mores and
languages. These helps to moderate the attitude of the local population and
makes penetration much easier.
9. Systematic
intelligence efforts: Serious efforts must be made to gather useful
intelligence information and organize them in a way and manner that would be
useful to the counter-insurgency group.
10. Methodical
clear and hold: this involves a strategy of dividing the conflict area into
sectors and assigning priorities to each.
11. Careful
deployment of mass popular forces and special units. This may include villages
defense groups, citizen militia and local security units. The essence is to
encourage the people to participate in their own defense. This aspect of self
participation encourages self involvement.
12. The
limits of foreign assistance must be clearly defined and carefully used. While
outside help may be useful, care must be taken not to “take over” a local war
in which case the foreign power become “sucked in” for lengthy commitment. This
was the case with the US in Vietnam. America’s involvement in Iraq and
Afghanistan in 2003 has also taken a similar shape. The greatest problem here
is that the local population may begin to see the foreign power as the enemy
rather than the liberator.
13. Duration: Care must be taken not engage
in a protracted conflict as this could wear down the counter-insurgency force
and make the campaign extremely costly. Western democracies are often quite
vulnerable here especially when support at the home base begins to wane.