Foreign Policy is a very essential aspect
of the life and existence of every sovereign nation. There are many definitions
and interpretations often ascribed to the term but the relevance of foreign
policy in the conduct of international relations has never been in doubt. it is
the bedrock of international politics and states depend full on this in
relating with other actors in the system
both at the primary and secondary levels. K.J. Holsti viewed foreign policy is
“actions and ideas designed by policy makers to solve or promote changes in the
international environment”.
For
Wolfran Handrieder, foreign policy is “a co-ordinate strategy with which
institutionally designated decision makers seek to manipulate the international
environment”.
Within
the international environment, a large number of states interact with each
other in their efforts to protect the interests of her citizens. Interaction
with other members of the international system is necessary and unavailable
aspect of the modern state system.
Interaction
between states may involve competition, co-operation, disagreement,
confrontation or reconciliation at different spheres of engagement. Areas of
engagement could be economic strategic, diplomatic or socio-cultural. other
areas of interaction may include scientific and technological matters, military
and strategic considerations, alliance formation and collective security,
political and ideological collaboration, educational, recreational and health
related matters.
Interaction
between states has become a permanent aspect of international relations either
at the bilateral, tripartite or multilateral levels. The wheels of foreign
policy revolve permanently around these areas. Foreign policy covers all
aspects of national endeavor and these are influenced by the prevailing global
circumstances of the time much as it affects, both directly and indirectly, the
interests of the state.
The
major aim of foreign policy is to maximize national interest through a well
organized system of protection and promotion of those interests whether
economic, strategic, political, ideological, diplomatic or bureaucratic. The
territorial integrity of the state is protected as much from physical incurious
as will as from cultural and ideological influences form the outside. The aim
is to ensure that those influences do into erode the peoples’ identity and way
of life.
Foreign
Policy is dynamic because the international environment is not static. It
continues to pass through several processes of change, alterations and
expansion in order to accommodate view challenges and goals with which a
country may be faced form time to time. Foreign policy is amenable to changes
in the system both internally and externally. Every country has to make
constant adjustments and as often as it is necessary, in order to ensure that
its foreign policy does not fell out of touch with the realities on ground.
This is why Joseph Frankel insists that foreign policy must be situated along
… a dynamic process of interaction. between the
changing domestic demands and support and the changing external circumstances…
Foreign
policy formulation and implementation must always take into account the changes
in the political and economic system, both at the domestic and international
levels. Without such steadfastness the substance of foreign policy stands the
risk of becoming irrelevant or absolute, and this could place national interest
in serious jeopardy.
The
substance of foreign policy must be an aggregation of the general interests of
the society. This interest aggregation comprises public opinion, the strength
of the national economy, the political elite, the military High command, the
intelligentsia, ideological proselytes, religious belief systems and the
bureaucracy.
Foreign
policy must be guided by considerations to the interests of other participants
and actors within the system since the interests of one country are checked by
the needs and desires of others. This way, the areas of potential conflict and
disagreements are significantly reduced. This situation is referred to as
constraint to policy. Such constraints include the demands and aspirations of
other states, the opinions of the allies. Competitors and rivals as well as
reatral states. Other important issues to be considered include the attitudes
and positions of non-state actors. Non-state actors, also referred to as
secondary actors, includes international organizations, non-governmental
organisations, inter-governmental organizations, specialized interest groups humanitarian
agencies and bodies, international and local pressure groups international
personalities and international Public Opinion (IPO).
The
two major determinants of a country’s foreign policy are domestic and external
variables. the domestic variables, according to Olu Adeniyi, include the
states” geographical location, size, nature of territory, natural resources,
the political culture, the leadership, human resources and the state of the
economic. The external variables on the other hand include the nature of the
international system, the distribution of
power at the global stage, the perception of a country by other actors,
and related developments within the multi-lateral system.
The
last two decades of the twentieth century was a period of great transformations
in the external stimuli that determines the nominative and policy output of
many nations around the world. some of these extra-ordinary events include the
fall of the Berhin wall, the tall of the
iron certain which had screened parts of Europe from the rest of the world for
nearly half a century and the collies of many authoritarian requires from Haiti
to Zaire and from the Philippines to Ethiopia. Other notable events include the
triumph of liberal democracy as the most acceptable rule of political
engagement between the rulers and their citizens. Equally worthy of mention is
the ascendancy of the neocolonial economic theory of Adam Smith, popularly
known as market forces in creating the bases of economic development and fiscal
relationships.
In
formulating foreign policy, many factors are taken into consideration. The fact
that a country is small does not mean that her foreign. Policy will be simple.
There must be hard choices to make and complex issues to decide. Each country
must have a position to take on issues of international significance. The fact
that Lesotho is not a nuclear power does not connote a lack of interest there.
Issues pertaining to nuclear proliferation, nuclear threat and the commercialization
of nuclear materials must attract the attention of policy makers in Masem.
As
individuals make choices at the personal levels, governments and nations also
make choices on domestic matters and foreign policy issues. there is a limited
amount of resources and opportunities available to states and the capacity to
top those resources and exploit the opportunities therein are not limitless
despite long years of exploitation and development.
Foreign
policy goals must also take into account the external constraints which were
earlier identified. These constraints may force a country to compromise on
certain matters, based on the realization that she may not have allot take stop
go all the way. In the second gulf won (2003), American intention to effect a regime
change in Berged was heartily constrained by the unwillingness of her former
allies during the 1991 conflict to support the new campaign both diplomatically
and militarily. The American government had to resort to series of measures and
pressures ranging from intimidation and blackmail to outright bribery, has,
falsification of intelligence information, and other forms of manipulation. on
the long run, president Bush was lonely
able to put together what he described as “the coalition of the will” to
provide a semblance of unified action in the face-off with Saddanu Hussein.
As
earlier noted, lost of changes have taken place in the global environment since
the last two decades of the 20th century. these changes have had an
overwhelming hear revolutionary impacts on the perceptions of issues and
approaches to events in the world system, some of these events include:
i. The
fall of the Berlin Wall and the Unification of harmony.
ii. The
collapse of the Soviet Union, the strong hold of world communism
iii. The
end of the super power rivalry between the U.S. and the USSR.
iv. The
rise of the US as a sole superpower
v. The
wide acceptance of democracy as the most viable system of government all over
the world
vi. The
acceptance of the free market economy in Eastern Europe.
vii. The
emergence of china as a regional economic power in south east area with global
aspirations.
viii. The
end of apartheid and introduction of majority rule in South Africa.
ix. Globalization
of trade and investment through the mechanism of the world trade Organization.
x. The
emergence of a new multipolar would system with different centres of power
xi. The
revolution in information technology otherwise known as the information super
high way
xii. The
expansion of NATO to incorporate former members of the Warsaw Pact.
xiii. The
Arab political awakening known as “the Arab springs” which has brought down
many authoritarian regions in the middle east and North Africa.
Foreign Policy and National Interest
In international relations, the concept of national
interest lacks a clearly defined meaning. it has come to mean different things
to different groups within the society. these groups includes the political
class, the military establishment, the business class, the intellectuals and
theoreticians. Each of these group has its own class interest to represent and
protect such that these special interests, more other than not, may come to
represent the national interest.
The concept of National interest has been a subject of
serious international focus since the end of the Second World War. for Hans
Morgan than, the objectives of foreign policy must be defined situated in terms of national interest
because “interest is the perennial standard by which political actions must be
judged” the fields that the national interest must also be defined in terms of
power and capability. power as a concept cannot be separated form national
interest because power is the principle instrument for the realization of
national interest. Power is made up of several elements such as geography,
size, population, economy, political ideology, structures and institutions of
society, military capability, technological know how, leadership and national
morale.
National interest is unambiguous concept, it is also elusive.
National interest is not about a single objective truth, rather it is a
pluralistic set of objectives and value preferences which at one end is
constant and at the other and continues to changes “whenever the requirements
as aspirations of the nations” members changes.
Broadly
speaking, national interest underscores the most essential values which a
country holds in extreme importance. such interests could be strategic,
economic, socio- political country would be willing to make sacrificies in order
to protect.
Types of National Interest
National
interest could be classified into three broad categories.
(a) Primary Interest: This is the most
vital interest of the state and it has to do with national security. Primary
interest deals with the defence, territorial sovereignty and independence of
the state. The most important responsibility of any government is to protect
the life, property and liberty of the citizens against external aggression and
pillage. According to Alex Hartman, primary interest is one for which a country
is willing to fight immediately and ultimately. He contends that vital
interests are predominantly, and essentially conservative. a country’s vital
interest is the protection of territorial integrity and the preservation of national
prestige. The nature of a country’s national interest may vary from one state
to another. during the world war, part of the vital interest of the soviet
union was the preservation of world communication and the protection the
proletariat. Part of American’s most vital interest at the period was to check
the spread of global communism. today, this interest has shifted to nuclear
proliferation and international terrorism for the US while Russia is concerned
with economic development and political stability. For almost all African
countries, food security remain a matter of vital interest.
(b) Secondary Interest: Also referred to as
national welfare, secondary interest deals with a country’s desire to protect
the financial, technical and related interests or her citizens abroad. Since no
nation in the modern world can exist in a state of isolation, nations and
individuals are interdependent on one another for the attainment of various
goals. Nation states, multinational corporations, international organizations,
non-governmental organizations and individuals are interdependent on one
another for the attainment of various goals. Nation states, Multinational
corporations, International organizations, non-governmental organizations and
individuals undertake commercial and industrial ventures of enormous
proportions in foreign lands. It is the responsibility of the home government,
though its agents at home and abroad, to ensure that such investments and
business interests are protected.
Citizens
of one country may also travel to foreign lands for purposes of education
health needs, tours, employment of the mercy of the host communities and their
governments. The home government must continue to monitor their progress in far
away pleases so as to ensure that their welfare are protected.
Secondary
interests are those interests which a country would work hard to protect but
over which they may not necessarily go to war. secondary interests are goals
and objectives which could be achieved though patient dip lunacy, negotiation
and bargaining. Nigeria’s secondary interest include economic development,
welfare and equality of the people while the secondary prosperity, freedom, the
pursuit of happiness and global influence.
(c) General Interest: Also known as national
prestige, general interest deals with the desire of a state to make it impact
felt of the world stage. This could be on matters of global peace and security,
commerce and international trade, scientific and technological advancement,
research, health and sports. Nigeria’s general interest include African unity,
human equality, global peace, justice interest involve the expansion of
capitalism (tree market economy), human rights, export of liberal democracy and
representative government and the preservation of world peace through the
instruments of the United Nations and its agencies.
The preservation of world peace and
international security is assumed to constitute the general interest of all
nations, often collative effort is made through coalition building and
imposition of sanctions to suppress aggressive behaviour one or more members of
the international system. The understanding here is that countries can pursue
other goals of foreign policy and national interest meaning fully only when the
international system.
INSTRUMENTS FOR PURSUING NATIONAL INTEREST
In
pursuing their interest in the global arena, be it primary, secondary or
general there are several instruments which countries employ for the
realization of these national goals and objectives. These instruments may vary
from one country to another and the ability to use them also varies. These
instruments may be need in isolation depending on the issue involved while of
depending on the issue involved while at other times they could be made to
complement each other. A country may be able to apply one instrument or the
other even a particular matter and on others may not be able or willing to do
he same. Some well developed countries like the US and a few well developed
countries like the US and a few others could employ all instruments t the same
time in other to achieve maximum examined below.
(a) Diplomatic Instrument: Diplomacy, which Ernest Satow described as “the
application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between
the governments of independent states” is one of the most effective instruments
of pursing a country’s national interest. Deployment, statement, Heads of
governments and representatives at all levels engage in negotiation,
bargaining, persuasion, intimidation and exchange to express the policies of
their governments and gain the needed support.
The hall mark of diplomacy is peaceful
interaction bases on mutual understanding of each others needs and respect for
the desires and aspirations of diverse interests competing at the global
environment. Diplomacy is largely reconciliatory hence it relies heavily on the
spirit of “give and take” Diplomacy allows each side reasonable rool for
maneuver reducing, as such as possible a claustrophobic atmosphere of intimidation
and bullying which could lead to hasty action and up pleasant outcome.
Diplomacy aims at averting war even tough
it does not always succeed. Diplomacy is a process, even in periods of conflict
and war, the wheels of diplomacy continue to turn wars do not end in the battle
field but on the negotiating table. Wars, at times becomes necessary to allow
diplomacy a chance of success.
Diplomacy in the modern era is a delicate
state craft. It is only the best who could compete in this arena. A diplomat must
possess “extra ordinary qualities” to enable him function effectively in view
of the difficult challenges continuing him. Alaba Ogunsanwo holds the view that
for a diplomat to excel in his job, he must possess bove-overage intelligence,
knowledge, character and personality. other essential attributes of a diplomat
include moral integrity, sense of humor, physical fitness, quick and ready
judgment, concentration, ability to read, interpret and analyze data. a good
diplomat must possess courage, wit, sharp and incisive mind and an even temper.
Diplomacy,
when properly nurtured, when adequately applied and when managed by those who
have the ability and wisdom to do so, goes a long way in achieving the goals of
national interest.
(b) Military Instrument: Although the use of force to facilitate the
objectives of foreign policy is not acceptable in the contemporary world
system, war a decisive rule in inter-national relations. under Article 51of the
united Nations chanter, the use of force is only permissible in the exercise of
the right to self defense. Any other condition or the use of force outsole this
stands in breach of international law.
Despite the clear position of international
law on their regulation of use of force in the inter national environment,
states have continued to depend on military measures in defense of various
degrees of national interest. Besides difects military combat, the military
instrument could be employed in many other forms or guises in the pursuit of
the interests and goals of state. These are briefly summarized as;
i. Military
demonstrations and maneuvers where a country may engage in a public display of
its military equipments and arsenal as a signal that it has the potentials,
ability and willingness to make won. military demonstrations may also aim at
proving the strength and incadacity of an existing alliance.
ii. Joint
maneuvers and combat display aimed or proving the existing of friends and
allies which could be banked upon for support when the need arises. The
greatest aim of joint maneuvers and combat display is to intimidate the
opponent and over helm potential adversaries with a show of strength.
iii. Military
aid and arms sale is a process of extending military assistance and sale of
weapons to friends and allies as a means of
protecting ones’ interests and obligations. in situations where direct
involvement may lead to the escalation of conflict, interstate parties may
resort to indirectly involvement through the sale of arms and extension of
other forms of military assistance and advice. Extension of other forms of
military assistance and advice.
iv. Military
advisers and combat troops in terms of personnel and technical experts maybe
deployed to conflict zones to ones’ friends and allies. Combat tropes could
equally be dispatched as a form of commitment to a goals or in fulfillment of
the provisions of existing agreement.
C. Economic instrument: A healthy national
economy serves as a solid foundation for the achievement of other political and
social needs of society. A country with a sound economy is therefore a strong
country. With a stable national economy a country could manipulate its strength
towards the pursuit and realization of other national goals. this could be done
in a number of ways;
i. Trade:
Trade and other forms of commercial activity is one language to which every
nation responds. Trading relationships subject to various forms of manipulation
and intrigue aimed at establishing or protecting the desire of the state. A
wealthy hatron could accord special trading privileges and concessions to
another if it has some political or strategic points to gain trough such
arrangement.
ii. Embargo
and sanctions: Trade embargo and other forms of economic sanctions may also be
applied against errant countries to compel them to act more reasonably and
responsibly. The mere threat of sanctions may be enough to achieve some desired
result. A sanction has been a long standing option in international politics
though it does not always produce the desired result. Sanctions and embargoes
are often easily circumvented by the civic teams and their supporters.
iii. Aid
and investment: Technical assistance, investment and aid programmes are
effective instruments of foreign policy bargaining. Aid and
investment-Technical assistance, investment and aid programmes are effective
instruments of foreign policy bargaining. aid can be used on the other hand to
put pressure on the receiving country by either withholding the package or
withdrawing it completely. Aid serves a carrot and stick purpose to encourage
responsible behaviour and to punish recalcitrance.
iv. Control
of international organizations. Strong and wealthy nations may use their
positions of strength to control international organizations. the United
Nations, the International Monetary Fund the would Bank, etc form time to time,
function as arons of the government of the big powers. They are used as
instruments to pursue the policies of those powers and provide legitimacy to
some actions of their governments considered in bad taste by other countries.
d. Psychological
Instrument: Also known as propaganda information management, the psychological
instrument aims to inform, educate or condition the minds of the listening
public towards a particular way of thinking or view point. The are at
propaganda, which involves the dissemination of information is packaged in a
way that presents one in a good light and drams the sympathy and understanding
of the general public. It serves to rationalize actions and ideas while
reducing the chances for criticism and opposition. propaganda serves to
discredit the enemy and portray him in a very bad enemy and portray him in a
very bad height. During the second world war, Mazi Germany used effective
propaganda justify the extermination of the Jews across esteem Europe. In the
months preceding the second felt war, George Bush and Tony Blair maintained
luge verbal attacks on the government of Iraq. Sadden Hussein was presented as
a threaty to the would and should be removed to present him from acquiring
weapons of mass destruction. propaganda government is not always a lie not is
it always intended to cause harm and injury. Propaganda could be used to spread
the ideals of a just cause and bring spaniels of a just cause and bring some to
the acceptance of a large audience.
e. Alliance
formation and collective security-alliance formation: is an old concept in
international relations. As an instrument for protecting national interest, it
is premised on pulling together of military resources to achieve collective
security interest. Alliance could be bilateral multilateral or universal.
Alliance
formation is purely a military and strategic under taking which boarders
primarily on defense and security matters. throughout history, to kingdoms and
empires and nation states have often relied on each to achieve a higher level
security sophistication. collective security reduces cost and guarantees weaker
states the protection of stronger neighbours against opponents or would be
aggressors.
f. Intelligence:
This is also known as information gathering techniques. It is based on the use
of sophisticated gadgets and specially trained agents to gather information and
unravel he secrets of others. Every government has important secrets to protect
from outsiders some of which may broaden on national security. the ability to
unravel such secrets becomes a negation of security interest and may lead to
undue pressure on the government or the state concerned.
Countries
spy on each other both at war times and in periods of peace. Every countries
could of victims of espionages as well as friendly ones and allies. The need to
know the real thoughts and perception of others is considered vital aspect of
policy making.
General Objectives of Foreign Policy
i. The
protection of sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of the state
is the sole aim of foreign policy. in a world system where might is right, the
preservation of the states territorial dignity remain a matter of paramount
importance.
ii. The
promotion of world peace and global under sting in the management of issues of
international significance. It is only in an environment of peace and
orderliness tat state sand other non-state actors can go about their legitimate
businesses.
iii. The
pursuit of sound economic programmes aimed at enhancing the well being of
citizens is a major goal of both domestic and foreign policies. a state with a
weak economy cannot compete favourably with others and the poor living standard
of the citizens would remain a weak link in the chain of development.
iv. To
create the enabling environment that would facilitate the promotion of
international problems. these are common problems that could have universal
impacts on the progress and general well being of mankind. Such problems include
terrorisms drugs and narcotics, international prostitution and child
trafficking, environmental pollution, wanton and unprovoked aggression, trans-
border migration. Smuggling and piracy, human rights abuses and other
deplorable acts capable of plunging the international enragement into chaos.
v. To
support and promote the success of international organizations in carrying out
their various functions aimed at facilitating the greater well-being of the
international system. The United Nations, for instance, has attempted to play
te leviathan since 1945 although the success of the organization has been of
very specific and limited nature.
vi. Promotion
of international peace through commitment to the goals of collective security
and collective action against aggression. All nations are encouraged to team up
and work together against a particular nation or group of nations which may
constitute a threat to international peace and order.
vii. The
eradications of racism, racial discrimination. And xenophobia in all aspects of
human relationship has become a subject of global concern. The UN is in the
fore- front of this campaign. The objective here is to sensitize the conscience
of all humanity against the evil impacts of racial discrimination in all
aspects of human interaction.