Masters of Public Health (MPH)
TEXILA
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
GEORGETOWN, GUYANA, SOUTH AMERICA
A RESEARCH IN
THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH, SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES, TEXILA
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN, GUYANA, SOUTH AMERICA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTERS DEGREE IN PUBLIC HEALTH(MPH)
DECLARATION
This research work has been read and approved as
having met the standard requirements of the school of post graduate studies for
the award of master in Public Health of the Texila American University.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGEACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DEDICATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.3 RESEARCH PROPOSITION
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
1.4.1 HYPOTHESIS
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:4
2.1 ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS4
2.1.1 CAUSES OF ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
2.1.2 IS PLATEAU STATE PRONE TO ROAD ACCIDENTS?
2.1.3 GOVERNORS’ CONVOYS AS METAPHORS OF EXECUTIVE HIGHWAY KILLERS
2.1.4 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1.5 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN NIGERIA
2.1.6 THE PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
2.1.7 MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT: ASIA IN CONTEXT
2.1.8 STRATEGIES FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1.9 PUBLIC HEALTH
2.2 THEORETICAL LITERATURE
2.3 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.2 VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENT
3.3 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
3.4 STUDY INSTRUMENT
3.5 STUDY AREA AND POPULATION
3.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
3.6.1 TIME CONSTRAINT
3.6.2 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINT
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
4.1 RESULTS
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY / DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY / DISCUSSION
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The increasing level of road traffic accident in
Plateau State and the consequent injuries and deaths strengthened the case for
its regular analysis. There is
generally increasing incidence, morbidity and mortality rates of road traffic
accidents. Majority of mortalities and morbidities occur in developing
Countries. Worldwide, road traffic accidents lead to death and disability as
well as financial cost to both society and the individual involved. The causes
of road traffic accidents are not just human error or driver negligence.
Unfortunately, Nigerian highways are arguably one of the worst and most
dangerous in the world. Road traffic accident in Plateau State, Nigeria has not
received the attention warranted. A
review of literature on road traffic accident and it impact was done. Using
the method of time series decomposition, traffic road accidents were
characterized to have an upward trend and significant seasonal influences.
Using chi-square test of significance, it was discovered that there were
significant differences among the various causes of accidents and accident
cases (Minor, fatal and serious) with respect to types of vehicles involved
over the years. The articles were
accessed from public libraries, as well as online through internet search
engines and relevant information extracted. There is need to view road traffic
accident as an issue that needs urgent attention aimed at reducing the health,
social and economic impacts. Data on recorded cases of road traffic
accidents were collected from the Motor Traffic Division (MTDRTR), the Nigerian
Police Force, Divisional Headquarters Jos, Plateau State Police Command. Out of
5921 accident cases, reckless driving, inexperience and mechanical fault and
road defects accounted for 30.3, 21.5 and 21.1%, respectively. Two motorcycles,
motorcycle-vehicle and vehicle-vehicle crashes are the lead types and have
resulted in 38.9, 37.5 and 14.9% of the total of 855 deaths recorded within the
period of study. Furthermore, it was also found that private cars, minibuses
and taxis accounted for most of the accidents with 94.7% of the total
accidents.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Road traffic
accidents occur when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian,
animal, road debris, or other stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility
pole Jacob,G.D.(2010). Worldwide, road traffic accidents lead to death and
disability as well as financial cost to both society and the individual
involved. There is generally increasing incidence, morbidity and mortality rates
of road traffic accidents. People are injured in road accidents everyday more
so in developing countries like Nigeria, Ovwori,Onibere and Asalor,J.O.(2010).
The problem is that the enormity of the problem is not appreciated and enough preventive
measures are not taken. Road traffic accidents occur worldwide but the
incidence is more in developing countries annually, it causes about 1.2 million
deaths globally,(WHO,2004). Road traffic accident is a leading cause of death
in adolescents and young adults worldwide. Majority of mortalities and
morbidities occur in developing countries. In Nigeria, trauma is the main
reason for emergency room visits and road traffic accidents are responsible for
the majority of deaths. The overall road traffic injury rate is about 41 per
1000 population and mortality from road traffic injuries is about 1.6 per 1000
population. This is significant when the fact that majority of these injuries
and deaths can be prevented. It becomes worrisome with the fact that the
incidence is increasing. Road traffic
accidents have several implications/cost. It has physical, social,
emotional and economic implications. According to WHO 7th Report on
World Health Situations,Vol.2, the global economic cost of road traffic accidents
was estimated at $518 billion per year in 2003 with $100 billion of that
occurring in poor developing countries, Nigeria loses about 80 Billion Naira
annually to road accidents. Nantulya,V.M.and M.R.Reich,(2002.), of all subjects
that are involved in road traffic accidents in Nigeria, 29.1 per cent suffer
disability and 13.5 per cent are unable to return to work. Hence, the cost of
road traffic accidents includes the cost of private property and public
amenities damaged the cost of medical treatment and the cost of productivity
lost due to the accident.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The rapid rate
of uncontrolled and unplanned accidents in the state has brought with it complex
urban health related problems. This implies a situation where health facilities
become overcrowded and inadequate for the growing population, the distribution
of health personnel and institutions are also inadequate. One of the most
serious health problems facing Plateau town is the uncontrolled accidents on
roads, which resulted to poor roads, over speeding, drunkenness etc and due to
the fact that there are no adequate medical facilities and national development
to contain the injured individual for treatment, leading to the spread of various
infectious diseases within the metropolis. It is against this backdrop that
this research seeks to explore the road traffic accidents, national development
and public health in contemporary Nigeria: analytical study of Plateau State -
2006-2013.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This research will empirically explore the Road
Traffic Accidents, National Development and Public Health in Contemporary
Nigeria: Analytical Study of Plateau State - 2006-2013. Meanwhile, the
researcher shall also make sound recommendations which will create a balance
between road accidents, national development and public health system.
1.3 RESEARCH PROPOSITION
Road accidents
have threatened the public health system in Nigeria due to its attendant consequences.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
1.
The
study examines the Road traffic accidents, national development and public
health in contemporary Nigeria.
2.
Plateau
State in north central Nigeria was used as a case study,
3.
The
period of 2006-2013 was considered since this period is reasonable enough to ascertain
the variables being considered by the researcher.
1.4.1 HYPOTHESIS
H0: Road
accidents does not significantly affect public health system in Plateau State Nigeria.
H1: Road
accidents significantly affects public health system in Plateau State Nigeria.
H2:
The people residing in Plateau State do not have access to basic
infrastructures due to national development.
H3:
The people residing in Plateau State areas have access to basic infrastructure
due to national development.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:
Literatures were
reviewed on thematic basis for the clarity.
2.1 ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
Road accidents
do not simply happen, they are caused. Given the fact that Nigeria has the highest
road accidents rate as well as the largest number of death per 10,000 vehicles,
(Sheriff, 2009), one may be tempted to believe that the level of awareness on
the causes of road traffic accidents is very low among Nigerians. On the
contrary, however, Asalor (2010) has shown that ‘Nigerians know quite a lot
about what could cause road traffic accidents’ and likened the situation to
that ‘in which in the midst of plenty, there could be hunger’. Accident is
defined as anything which happens by chance, anything occurring unexpectedly and
undersigned, Odugbemi (2010). Road traffic accident is therefore an unexpected phenomenon
that occurs as a result of the use or operation of vehicles including bicycles
and handcarts on the public highways and roads. Accidents may be fatal,
resulting in deaths of the road users (passengers, drivers or pedestrians), or
minor when it is not severe enough as to cause substantial hardship. The dividing
line between minor and serious accident is however blurred. As it has been
defined, accident would rarely give warning although reckless drivers should anticipate
the consequences of their recklessness. In general, accidents do not just occur;
they are basically brought about by human recklessness, carelessness or negligence.
Even where the immediate cause of a road accident is attributable to mechanical
factor, carelessness in the form of omission to check and maintain the vehicle
at the appropriate time would have remotely contributed. Trivial checking and
maintenance of the vehicles could avert an imminent accident.
In the ancient Plateau
Empire, road transport owners / operators in the 11th century must provide a
slave who will carry a red flag to warn other road users that a motor car is coming
and leave the road space to avoid possible road accident (Jacobs, 2010). Today the
car has a faster speed and the need to incorporate gadgets like, the horn,
braking system, traficators, headlights and break-lights to avoid road
accident.
Before the ‘Oil
boom’ in Nigeria, road accidents were rather rare. The oil boom brought along
with it ‘rapid’ industrialization which calls for improved accessibility. Roads
were therefore built albeit without dire attentions to standard. As the
disposable income of people grew vehicle ownership increased. According to
Sheriff, (2009), all these developments were not matched by adequate measures
and control. Consequently, the roads grew to be a death trap for Nigerian citizens.
These are indirect factors of road accident in Nigeria.
2.1.1 CAUSES OF ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
The issue of
road traffic accidents is one that requires great care in handling as it is hydra
headed in nature. The major causes of road traffic accidents could be
classified under the following sub-headings.
a. Vehicle
related factors
b. Human related
factors
c.
Environment-related factors
·
Vehicle Related Issues
According to Ovuwori et al., (2010),
tyres, engines, braking system and lights system are among vehicle subsystems
which malfunction can cause road accidents. The vehicle itself is a component
of the road traffic system. Consequently its reliability is positively correlated
with accident causation on the road network it plies. The reliability of the
vehicle is itself a function of the condition of vehicle. Attempt is made to
discuss the following vehicular issues which are usually responsible for a
number of the accidents on Nigerian roads.
·
Vehicle Design
Every vehicle is designed for a specific
maximum load in all its ramifications. It is therefore, not surprising that
when subjected to stress over and above the provisions of the design
specifications, accelerated wear and tear set in on the vehicles. The net
effect of this could result in deterioration for the condition of the vehicle.
Design defects affect the subsequent condition of the vehicle once it is put on
the road and operated either normally or otherwise which may result to possible
road accidents. Recall in Africa is not yet entrenched so any defect from
manufacturer is born by the user(s) whether accidents results or not.
·
The Vehicle Body
The body attribute to some measure in
causing road traffic accidents; though less prominent is the firmness of the
structure of the vehicle. Hanging parts of the body of a vehicle though rare
can greatly affect the stability and hence the level of control by the
operator.
·
The Brake System
The brake subsystem, working jointly
with the accelerator is the main synchronizer of the speeds of vehicles. Any
malfunctioning of the brake sub-system should be taken very seriously as a
potential source of unavoidable accident.
·
The Vehicle Tyres
The tyre is a dominant factor in
determining the safety of automobiles on the road. Tyre relatedcauses of road
accidents could be due to one or a combination of:
Ø Tyre(s) (are)
overinflated
Ø Thread are
thoroughly worn-out
Ø Tyre(s) is (are)
‘pregnant’ and
Ø Tyre(s) is (are)
rear peel-off
·
The Vehicle Lights
Vehicle lights fall into two broad
categories, namely those that are useful at all times (i.e. in daylight, in
darkness and in poor weather) e.g. headlights. Although it is well known that
the failure of vehicle light is a major factor in road traffic accident. As
pointed out by Adiele (2011), light failure (e.g. of one headlight) has a
tendency to misinform and mislead other road users thereby providing a good opportunity
for an accident to occur. Similarly, a failed trafficator light will not
normally provide the usual warning to the rest of the followers that the
vehicle is about to undertake a turning maneovour, for instance. If the vehicle
following has a faulty brake subsystem or its operator has not allowed for a sufficient
safe-gap, this could result in an accident.
·
The Engine
The engine sub-system may be considered
the head of the vehicle and one whose sudden failure on a highway is more
likely to cause an accident if the volume of traffic is sufficiently high. Even
when the traffic is reasonably low, mis-management of the failure by an experienced
operator could cause an accident
·
Human and Environmental / Road Related Issues
Some of the well known factors which
fall under this category include fog, sunrays, mist and rain. These in no small
measure contribute greatly to the rate of road traffic accident in Nigeria
today. In particular it is expected that the operator who is the master ‘on
board’ should be able to exercise sufficient control over the vehicle. A
significant number of vehiclar accidents are traceable to the road. Recent
studies (Asolor et al, 2008) have demonstrated that the road is another major
factor in road accidents in Nigeria. Akinyemi, (2009) collected and analyzed
‘data on geometric design information system, roadway surface and road side
conditions on seven two lane rural roads in the country. It found that rural
roads in the country have low levels of design consistency, sight distance on
and between geometer features as insufficient for stopping and overtaking
adequate traffic control devices and unforgiving road sides’. He then argues
that their deficiencies are due largely to inadequate road design specification
and maintenance. Anyata (2009) on the other hand showed that inadequate
drainage could render the road a serious accident threat. Another aspect of the
road factor is the general condition of the road itself. Issues of potholes,
the indiscriminate location of police check points and the reluctance of the
appropriate authorities to continually improve on the condition of the roads
are significant in road accidents.
·
Driver Related Factors
Studies have shown clearly that the
single most important contributing factor to road traffic accidents in Nigeria
is the attitude of the driver to driving code and etiquette. Driver related issues
include sleepiness and fatigue, faulty preparation, ignorance of highway codes
or traffic orders, driving under the influence of drugs and or alcohol and inexperience.
2.1.2 IS PLATEAU STATE PRONE TO ROAD ACCIDENTS?
Even
in Plateau State, one of Nigeria’s political and administrative seat of power,
has not sufficiently demonstrated that it is free of the incessant road
accidents that characterize most highways across the country. Despite its
first-class road networks and the heavy presence of state security agents like
the Nigerian Police Force, the Road Safety Corps and the Vehicle Inspector
officers, the capital city continues to experience numerous fatalities on its
highways. In fact, road accidents are one of the major causes of violent deaths
in the metropolis. Other prevailing causes of violent deaths in the capital
city include crime, fire/explosion, natural disaster, other accidents, and
sorcery, as documented in the Nigeria database. The following figures exhibit a
noticeable trend in the causes of civil violence between the months of June and
December 2013.
The
above trend indicates that road accident was the main cause of civil violence
for the months of July, August, October, November and December. Road accident
also ranks second for the month of June (after Other Accidents) and September
(after Crime). A pattern of fatalities in the period under consideration can
further be identified across the six municipalities that make up the Plateau
State.
Plateau
Area Councils, the main routes through which heavy traffic flows into the
capital territory, account for the highest death figures. This unfortunate
development could be linked to over-speeding commuters and the very poor state
of the roads along those particular axes. Ironically, the construction of the Plateau–Abuja
expressway has been on-going for more than 10 years without any serious
improvement. The rising death tolls on this road may not abate in the near
future if the construction overseers fail to expedite completion of the
expressway. Government and other stakeholders should, therefore, take
appropriate action to increase safety for road users. Even as simple as taking
care of the bad spots that have become death traps for drivers that have little
knowledge of the bad sections of the roads.
2.1.3 GOVERNORS’ CONVOYS AS METAPHORS OF EXECUTIVE HIGHWAY KILLERS
The
cases of over-speeding governors’ convoys on our pothole-ridden roads continue
to be a source of concern. Despite their constitutional role as the Chief
Security Officers of their respective states, our governors and other VIPs
blatantly disregard traffic rules, violating other road users’ rights and
endangering lives. Since 2007, there have been many cases of irresponsible and
deadly lawlessness perpetrated by convoys of state executives. The annual
deaths due to governors’ convoys and the frequency of these accidents since
2007 are summarized below:
The
blue columns represent the number of deaths, while the red indicate their
frequency for each year. This analysis shows clearly that the cases of
fatalities involving governors’ convoys are not recent happenings. The public
were incensed only with the recent killing of Prof Festus Iyayi, when the
convoy of Kogi State Governor Mr Idris Wada rammed into the professor’s
vehicle. Past trends ought to have provoked an outcry long before this. Convoys
of at least 26 governors, including those of Plateau, Ekiti, Edo, Ogun,
Katsina, Ondo, Delta, Imo, Nasarawa and Gombe, have been involved in fatal
accidents since 2006. The following chart shows the trend by location, deaths
and frequency since that year.
The
emerging trend is that well over 75% of the states of the federation have had
their share of the highway carnage characterizing the movement of state
executives. It may therefore be argued and asserted that the so-called Chief
Security Officers of states constitute a greater threat than others to the
security of the lives of the citizens they were elected to protect.
2.1.4 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
National, according to
Longman dictionary of contemporary English, refers to a phenomenon that
embraces a whole nation. National development therefore can be described as the
overall development or a collective socio-economic, political as well as
religious advancement of a country or nation. This is best achieved through
development planning, which can be described as the country’s collection of
strategies mapped out by the government.
2.1.5 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN NIGERIA
We have had series of
development plans in Nigeria. Nigeria is permanently hunted by the specter of
development. Its forty-nine years of independence actually are rolling by daily
in search of development. The myth of growth and development is so entrenched
that the country’s history passes for the history of development strategies and
growth models from colonial times up to date. No term has been in constant flux
as development. This seems the only country where virtually all notions and
models of development have been experimented (Aremu, 2003).
Two years after independence,
the first National Development Plan policy was formulated between 1962 and 1968
with the objectives of development opportunities in health, education and
employment and improving access to these opportunities, etc. This plan failed
because fifty percent of resources needed to finance the plan was to come from
external sources, and only fourteen percent of the external finance was
received (Ogwumike, 1995).
Collapse of the first
Republic and the commencement of civil war also disrupted the plan. After the
civil war in 1970, the second national development plan 1970 to 1974 was
launched, the plan priorities were in agriculture, industry, transport,
manpower, defence, electricity, communication and water supply and provision of
social services (Ogwumike, 1995). The third plan, covering the period of 1975
to 1980 was considered more ambitious than the second plan. Emphasis was placed
on rural development and efforts to revamp agricultural sector. The fourth plan
1981 to 1985 recognized the role of social services, health services, etc. The
plan was aimed at bringing about improvement in the living conditions of the
people. The specific objectives were: an increase in the real income of the
average citizen, more even distri-bution of income among individuals and
socio-economic groups, increased dependence on the country’s material and human
resources, a reduction in the level of unemployment and underemployment
(Ogwumike, 1995).
During these periods,
Nigeria’s enormous oil wealth was not invested to build a viable industrial
base for the country and for launching an agrarian revolution to liquidate mass
poverty. For instance, the Green Revolution Programme that replaced Operation
Feed the Nation failed to generate enough food for the masses. In the recent
past, various strategies for development have also been tried with little or no
result; among these were the structural adjustment programme (SAP), Vision
2010, national economic empowerment and development strategy (NEEDS), creation of
development centres, etc. currently, seven point agenda of the present
administration with vision 2020 without any clear methodological approach
towards achieving them. It is obvious that the current results so far are not
what development connotes.
2.1.6 THE PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
In spite of series of
development strategies, put in place by successive governments, and sometimes
with good intentions, all attempts to generate meaningful development proved
futile. Based on this, one is now confronted with these puzzles: “Were those
previous development plans or strategies bad in their context, or wrongly
projected?” If nothing was wrong with the plans, then why is it still difficult
to generate meaningful development in spite of the huge resources at our
disposal? The solutions to these puzzles are not farfetched. A lot of factors
have combined together to fetter nation’s development.
One, there are in most
cases, no executive capacity responsible for the formulation and implementation
of the plan. What we usually see are officials entrusted to such a position but
without any meaningful executive authority.
Some of the previous
development plans failed because; there was little or no consultation of the
general public. Planning is supposed to involve even the peasants in the
villages. Even, the Local Government officials who are close to the people were
not consulted. Planning is not an edifice where technocrats alone operate
(Mimiko, 1998).
Lack of good governance
also militates against national development. Where there is no good governance,
deve-lopment becomes a mirage. This is as a result of bad leadership in the
country. Most of our leaders have no sense of commitment to development.
Mimiko (1998) captures
the situation this way: “The decolonization allowed the crop of leaders that
aligned with colonial power to take over Nigeria. This ensured the sustenance
of a neo-colonial economy even after political independence. These leaders on
assumption of power quickly turned up the repressive machinery of the colonial
state rather than dismantling it. Significantly, they have no vision of
development to accompany the efficient instrument of repression they inherited.
All they were interested in was access to power and privileges and not
development”.
High level of
corruption and indiscipline is another barrier to development. Nigeria state is
corrupt, managed by corrupt leaders who have made the state an instrument of
capital accumulation, rather than using it to project the interest of the
citizenry. A very good plan supervised by a thoroughly corrupt state can hardly
do a thorough good job (Mimiko, 1998). Corruption and development are
antithetical to each other, the two cannot cohabit, and so, where one is
present, the other suffers.
Another important
factor is the mono-economic base of the country. The country largely depends on
crude oil for her survival to the detriment of other resources. All other
sectors of the economy are neglected. For instance, agriculture, which constitutes
the mainstay of the Nigerian economy in the 1950s and 1960s, has been thrown
into limbo over the years. How would government encourage export promotion when
there is virtually nothing to export? The economy is not diversified and this
is not suitable for a sustainable development (Mimiko, 1998).
2.1.7 MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT: ASIA IN CONTEXT
The enviable growth and
development patterns of several Asian countries are well known. East Asia is
the only region in the world that has been able to maintain strong, consistent
growth patterns over several decades, led first by Japan and the newly
industrializing economies of Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, etc
(Mimiko, 1998; Adelman, 1995). Apart from the homogenous nature of these
societies, other several factors were responsible for their develop-ment. These
were: development of agricultural sector, a system of mass education,
development of indigenous industries, export-oriented strategy, the SpaRTAn
discipline of their leadership, existence of efficient bureaucracy, Lawal and
Oluwatoyin 239 human resources development, encouragement of a dynamic private
sector working in co-operation with the government towards a society-wide
vision of develop-ment, institutional capacity building and attention to the
problems of governance, consistency and policy stability, etc (Mimiko, 1998).
2.1.8 STRATEGIES FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The beauty of any
development plan is the faithful implementation of such plan, which its success
lies with the implementers. In our previous discussion, it was mentioned that
most of the past development plans failed as a result of implementation problem
and lack of committed leadership etc. Based on this fact, new development
policies and strategies are currently in place as alternative strategies for
development, such as Seven Points Agenda, Vision 2020, etc. These policies and
vision appear to be all embracing but they are not sacrosanct in their
totality. But if faithfully implemented, the nation at least will move towards
path of development. It is in our opinion that to successfully implement the
Seven Point Agenda of the present regime, there are some lessons we can learn
from Asian models of development.
First, development
requires total commitment on the parts of the leadership. The need for
discipline and honesty on the part of the project implementers cannot be
compromised; such officials should show enough discipline, interest,
willingness, dedication and honesty. Without these attributes and the will to
pursue set economic goals, all other ingredients of development present would
amount to nullity.
Second, this country
should learn that wholesale liberalization; the type advocated by the
apologists of orthodox SAP is not necessarily synonymous with development. It
goes without saying therefore that a level of state involvement (heterodoxy) is
imperative even in the face of the crucial need for structural adjustment. But
whatever the degree of state involvement, private owner-ship of properties must
be guaranteed for investment to get stimulated (Mimiko, 1997). Although, it is
another question whether Nigerian state as presently constituted can play this
critical role given its embarrassing level of corruption, inefficiency and
incapacitation by commitment to sundry primordial values. Be it as it may, the
goal should be to evolve a process of reformation of the state to make it able
to play the type of highly constructive role that its counterparts are playing
in the whole of East Asia (Mimiko, 1997).
Also, stability and
continuity of policies encourage investment and propel development. For
instance, in Korea, when park was assassinated, his policies remained and were improved
on. Nigeria leadership must learn to build on policies rather than to jettison
them for new ones for the sake of party politics and personal aggrandizement.
There is the need for
Nigeria to revamp the agricultural sector; this sector was instrumental in the
development of Japan. Agriculture used to be the mainstay of Nigeria economy
but the discovery of crude oil succeeded in putting agriculture into state of standstill
or oblivion.
Human resources
development is also a sine qua non to Nigeria national development; this was
demonstrated in Japan and Korea (Lawal et al., 1976). Development depends very
much on human knowledge and skills. This must be such that a high quality of
education and training is achieved for a large majority at a reasonable price
and the context and quality of such education and training should be relevant
and adequate to the country’s development needs. Literature on development
stresses the axiom that it is the people who develop and that unless there are
large numbers of suitably qualified people, development cannot take place.
There is need for
attitudinal change. Nigerians must as a matter of fact change their pessimistic
attitude towards development. The idea or belief that “things cannot work in
Nigeria or Nigerian factor” should be discouraged. Real development is achieved
through internal activities rather than from external influences. Development
is seen as a process generated within a society by forces propagated and
invigorated by the actual members of that society. It is believed that true
development can neither be started nor sustained by outsiders. Although, no
country can develop in isolation, but heavy emphasis should not be placed on
foreign resources for the country’s development. The models of development of
Japan and China show how these countries utilize their internal resources both
human and material for rapid economic development. It is reasonable that
Nigerians should inculcate a high sense of patriotism as demonstrated by the
Japanese and Chinese.
Importantly,
citizenship should be promoted over indignity in order to achieve cooperation
and participation of all communities in the development process. Omotoso (2008)
noted that the 1999 constitution is directly or indirectly promoting indignity
in the country. For example, section 318(1) of paragraph (IV) supports indignity.
The constitution sets parameters for indigenes and non-indigenes. It equally
gives legal bases to various discriminatory policies that actively promote indignity,
contrary to some sections that argue against discrimination. This is very
contradictory. Leadership in Nigeria must behave in a way to inculcate the
spirit of patriotism in the minds of the people, so that they will be ready to
stand with the government in her development efforts. When Nigerians see
themselves as one and not as belonging to one section of the country as
portrayed presently, the urge to develop Nigeria will be germinated and
sustained.
Additionally, the need
to reform electoral process is imperative for socio-economic and political
development. Electoral fraud is one of the banes of Nigeria’s development. The
role of leadership in development cannot be overemphasized, all efforts towards
development must be coordinated and directed by the leaders, therefore, the
leaders must be development conscious, have genuine interest for development
and the political will to propel such development. The leaders must also have
the cooperation of the people, because, it is the people that develop a nation.
Honestly, the aforementioned ingredients cannot be possible without a
legitimized mandate for the leaders by the people. When a leader assumes office
illegimately or through electoral fraud, such leader is bound to fail in his
effort to generate meaningful development. This is due to the fact that such
illegitimate leaders tend to display characters that repress development such
as; selfishness, corruption, pride, thuggery and inefficiency and also, there
is apathy and natural detachment to development plans by the people as they did
not see such emerging leaders as the products of their consent through voting. Based
on the foregoing, the electoral process should be reformed in such a way that
nobody assumes power (political) through crook or fraudulent means. The process
should be made opened, free, fair and competitive. All legal battles preceding
the elections must be concluded before any swearing in. This, it is believed,
will create genuine environment conducive for development. Lastly, development
plan should not be exclusively regarded as economic issue it should be seen as
holistic and encompassing national issue that cuts across economic, social,
political and psychological aspects of human endeavour.
2..1.9 PUBLIC HEALTH
The dimensions
of health can encompass “a state of complete physical, mental and social
wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. As defined by
the United Nations’ World Health Organization, Public health incorporates the
interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health
services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational
health are other impoRTAnt subfields (WHO. 2005). Just as Studies on the health
impacts of urbanization reveal that urbanization can have both positive and
negative effects on health. Urban life can be rich and fulfilling since it is
more diverse, stimulating, and full of new opportunities. Individual and family
mobility make it easier to escape from oppressive social relationships. Cities
are sources of ideas, energy, creativity, and technology. They can, for
example, foster enlightened, congenial, and multicultural living (McMicheal
2000).
Health Reform
Foundation of Nigeria (2012) affirmed that, urbanization should be seen and
addressed as a public health issue to be tackled. There is the need to have
urban planning, decongest the urban areas by ensuring peripheries are provided
essential amenities such as good roads network water, electricity, health
facilities and good schools .Also, the issues of environmental sanitation
should be adequately tackled, while facilities for recreation and walkways
should be provided on roads for health-walk “he stated. Iyun (2009), also
affirmed that the “health status of urban people is expected to be worse in
comparison with those in the rural areas considering their various health
challenges such as poor sanitary conditions, lack of potable water and high
pollution level.
Abiodu (2010)
explain the need for Nigeria to explore and strengthen other mechanisms of
health system and shift focus from out-of-pocket payments, address the issues
that have undermined public health care financing in Nigeria, improve on
evidence-based planning, and prompt implementation of the National Health Bill
when signed into law. Onwujekwe et al (2010) explain that, In spite of the
various reforms to increase the provision of health care services to the
Nigerian people, health access is only 43.3%. The inadequacy of the health care
delivery system in Nigeria could be attributed to the peculiar demographics of
the Nigerian populace. About 55% of the population lives in the rural areas and
only 45% live in the urban areas. Moe et al (2007) opined that, Provision of
timely information aimed at combating possible health menace among many other
things is an impoRTAnt function of public health. Hence, inadequate tracking
techniques in the public health sector can lead to huge health insecurity, and
hence endanger national security, etc.
Ekudayomi and
Adekpoju (2008) in their study, “Public Health and Population Growth” revealed
that; the available health facilities/infrastructure in the cities become over
stretched as urban population continue to rise without improving the existing
facilities or providing additional one, they further explained that, failure of
the Nigerian government to respond adequately to the increasing demand for
urban Health infrastructural services has had the following consequences like,
deteriorated quality of life in the city, the inadequate provision of
infrastructural services, shoRTAge of drug, decline in the productivity of
workers. In the same way, Harris (2003) advised that in other to avert the
consequence of uncontrolled urbanization on public health, government across
the world must, as a matter of priority, devise ways to plan their cities,
improve urban living conditions, like water and sanitation, housing, transpoRTAtion,
promoting health behavior and safety condition.
2.2 THEORETICAL LITERATURE
Causes
of Road Accidents
The causes of
road traffic accidents are multi-factorial. These factors can be divided
broadly into driver factors, vehicle factors and roadway factors. Accidents can
be caused by a combination of these factors. Driver factors solely contributes
to about 57 per cent of road traffic accidents and 93 per cent either alone or
in combination with other factors Driver factors in road traffic accidents are
all factors related to drivers and other road users. This may include driver
behaviour, visual and auditory acuity, decision making ability and reaction
speed. Drug and alcohol use while driving is an obvious predictor of road
traffic accident, road traffic injury and death. Speeding, travelling too fast
for prevailing conditions or above the speed limit, is also a driver factor
that contributes to road traffic accidents. The risk of being injured increases
exponentially with speed much faster than the average speed. The severity of
injury depends on the vehicle speed change at impact and transfer of kinetic
energy. Though vehicles travelling slower than average speed are also at
increased risk of road traffic accidents, most involve speed too fast for the
conditions.
Vehicle factors
can be divided into vehicle design and vehicle maintenance. Some safety
features of vehicles like seatbelts and airbags are likely to reduce the risk
of death and serious injuries. A well-designed and maintained vehicle is less
likely to be involved in accidents. If the brakes and tires are good and the
suspension well-adjusted, the vehicle is more controllable in an emergency and
thus, better equipped to avoid accidents.
Road design and maintenance is also a factor that contributes to road
traffic accidents. The causes of road traffic accidents are not just human
error or driver negligence. Unfortunately, Nigerian highways are arguably one
of the worst and most dangerous in the world.
2.3 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
ROAD ACCIDENT PREVENTIVE
MEASURES
This section
discussed the major issues of preventing or measures generally taken to prevent
road traffic accidents.
·
Training and Retraining
The training and
retraining of drivers constitute a formidable means of effectively dealing with
the issue of road traffic accident reduction. The road traffic system itself is
dynamic in nature. Therefore, the training and retraining of operators of
vehicles is a necessity. This measure is the only means of ensuring that
operators entering or remaining in action in the system are first endowed with
the necessary skills.
·
Engineering
This is one of
the four strategies popularly known by road safety practitioners and scholars
as the ‘FOUR E’s’. According to Sanders (2010), engineering will normally focus
on those elements which deal with safer vehicles and improved vehicle design.
The real point here is that engineering as a counter measure is that it ensures
that a high reliability is achieved at the design stage and consequently the
occurrence of failure of the vehicle while in operation is maintained.
·
Education
Education is
another means of effectively reducing road traffic accidents. Although it was
pointed out earlier on that Nigerian are well aware of the factors that could
cause road traffic accidents. Education can prepare the ground for more long
term attitude and behaviour changes and
therefore, that road safety education should start with pre-school age
groups and continue through a child’s formal education.
·
Enforcement
Traffic laws are
promulgated by legislators who seek to protect all users of the road network.
In order for the laws to have the desired effects, they must be enforced by the
various law enforcement agencies fairly and justly. Experience has shown that
in countries where enforcement has been adequately provided for in all its
ramifications, those road traffic accidents have been well reduced.
·
Evaluation
Evaluation is a
proven means of providing a basis for remedial actions. Consequently, this
serves as another effective means of knowing when and what kind of further
actions needed to be taken in order to achieve a visible reduction in accident
tallies.
·
Investigation
The proper
investigation of accidents is yet another rather effective means, though
remote, of achieving some reduction in accident. The hypothesis here is that a
driver who is aware that the extent of his fault is an accident would be
revealed by a thorough investigation is more likely to be careful.
·
Maintenance
Maintenance in
all its ramifications is one of the most effective preventive measures that any
individual or organization can take to maximize the output of his, its accident
reduction / prevention programme. Any maintenance programme which is expected
to make a meaningful and sufficient impact must of necessity, address three
major aspects namely, the road network, the vehicle and the driver.
·
Budgeting Issues
Budgeting is a
major nuisance factors as it is not within the control of the average road
user. Any maintenance programmes without an adequate budget back-up is as good
as the ‘do nothing’ solution option of the system approach. Therefore a remote
way of ensuring accident reduction/prevention is for the government, which is
charged with the responsibility for good maintenance to draw up and implement
to the later on regular basis, budgets that match the demands of the road
network and its infrastructure.
·
The Operator/Driver
The driver
himself is subject to physiological wear and tear. Being the main actor in
control of the factors responsible for accidents, it is absolutely that he be
both physically and mentally alert when operating the vehicle. Consequently,
the driver requires adequate maintenance which may come in the form of welfare
scheme, health service programme, retraining.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The Survey
research design was adopted in this study. This design was employed because of
its exploratory nature. The researchers also employed both primary and
secondary sources of data collection. Primary data were collected through the
administration of questionnaire while secondary data were gathered from related
literatures, textbooks, journals, bulletins and periodicals.
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study is
based on data obtained from the Motor Traffic Division (MTD), Nigeria Police
Force (NPF) which comprises of Plateau Police Division (PPD). The Directorate
General of Traffic (DGT) of PPD is the sole authority to record, analyze and
publish all data related to traffic accidents in Plateau State. Reporting of
the Nigerian Road Safety (RTA) related data by PPD is thought to be of high
coverage, because of enforcement of a law that car insurance companies, garages
or repair establishments could not accept a vehicle involved in an accident for
insurance claim and repair if a police report is not produced. Similar traffic
laws exist in other different Nigerian States (El-Sadig et al., 2002; Ziyad and
Akhtar, 2011). Nevertheless, the true number of RTA and related fatality and
injury are likely to be higher in Plateau than it is reported by PPD, as it
omit the accident cases that results in minor damage, injury or causality and
overlook minor self accidents or the accidents cases that are settled by the
parties mutually at the scene. RTAs are defined to include all traffic related accidents
that result in injury or death to road users. RTA injuries are defined to
include all traffic related non-fatal injuries, while RTA fatalities are
defined to include all traffic-related deaths that occur within 30 days from
the accident. Population denominator data were obtained from the published
population census reports and the inter census population estimates were
obtained based on the enumerated population of 1993, 2003 and 2010 population
census in Nigeria. The data for global comparison were obtained from the WHO
Reports (2009).
3.2 VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENT
To validate the
research instrument, the researchers employed the services of two Road Safety
officers, two employees and two employers of Federal Medical Center from
Plateau, Nigeria for validity. The questionnaire was validated after thorough
scrutiny and valuable contributions made duly incorporation.
3.3 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
To estimate the
reliability of the instrument employed for data collection, the instrument was
administered twice to town planning officers, medical doctors, environmental
officers, employees and employers of labours numbering twenty from Plateau. The
second administration of the instrument was two weeks after the first exercise
and the resulting scores were correlated using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation approach. This yielded the co-efficient Pf r = 0.82.This score
indicates that the instrument is very reliable.
3.4 STUDY INSTRUMENT
The study was
conducted in Plateau State, Nigeria. Sample selection of respondents located in
residential (households) and institutional (Health) facilities was drawn for
the study using cluster sampling. Questionnaires and in-depth- interview were
administered to retrieve information from the households in the cluster and
respondents in selected Health institutions were interviewed. 399
questionnaires were administered out of which 367 were retrieved and analyzed
giving a response rate of 92% For more in-depth understanding of the social
reality of population growth and it’s impact on the health system in Plateau
metropolis, 15 in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted among the Management
and staff of some selected health institutions, environmental officers, town
planning officers, employers and employees of labors using simple random sampling.
The questionnaire was title “Effect of Urbanization on public health system
(EUPHS).” The questionnaire has two sections. Section “A” demands information
on the effect of urbanization on the public system and section “B” contains the
likely measures to addressing such negative effects. The instrument is in the
form of like five point rating scale. The response options have the values of
5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, respectively.
3.5 STUDY AREA AND POPULATION
The study
focused on people living and working in Plateau State. The present Plateau is
situated in Nigeria’s middle belt and shares boundaries with Nassarawa, Kaduna
and Bauchi. It was said to have been founded in 1976 with an area of 26,899
square kilometers. The state has an estimated population of about three million
people. It is located between latitude 80023’N and longitude 80032’N
and 100038’E. Plateau was one of the first British settlements in
the northern part of Nigeria, and it rapidly developed in the 1970s as a result
of the European economic activities and later, political activities, especially
at the turn of the century. The town started as a cosmopolitan settlement which
attracted people from various parts of what is now Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and
Europe (Mohammed, 1984:50). The significance of the town is not only due to its
geographical location as the confluence of Rivers Niger and Benue, but also to
the historical fact that it was the first colonial administration capital of
Northern Nigeria with rich tourist attractions. Today, Plateau with a Capital
city of Jos has a population of about 3378093 according to the 2006 national
census with an annual growth rate of 2.6%. It is made up of the Seventeen Local
Government Areas(LGAs) in three Senatorial Districts. The major occupations of
people are mining, farming, fishing and trading.
3.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
3.6.1 TIME CONSTRAINT
The time
constraint has shown no mercy to the researcher. The limited time has to be
shared among alternative uses, which includes; reading, attending lectures and
writing this research work, thereby making the researcher unable to reach most
organisations and sample study, related to her study, where useful materials
could have been collected, due to limited time available to her custody.
3.6.2 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINT
As a student in
a developing Country, finance poses a lot of problem towards achieving the
desired result. Research writing is very expensive as it entails many costs;
which include: Mobility cost, cost of collecting data, and other miscellaneous
costs like cost of procuring relevant text books and other recommended
materials that are vital for the study.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
4.1 RESULTS
Levels and
Trends of Automobiles Usage in Plateau
Table 1 shows
the growth of population and the growth of automobiles in Plateau State during
the 7-year study period 2006-2013. It can be seen that there has been massive
increase in the number of automobiles compared to population increase during
the period 2006 to 2013. Between 2006 and 2013, the population of Plateau
increased by 21.6%, with the mean annual increase by about 2.0%. On the other hand,
the automobile fleet in the country increased by 52.4%, with a mean annual
increase by 4.3% between 2006 and 2013. At the same period, the new registration
of automobile increased by 161%, with a mean annual increase by 10%. The most
remarkable increase in new registration of automobiles occurred during
2006-2013 period. During this period, the number of new registration jumped to
five digit number. For example, the number of vehicles in 2006 was 548,908, and
80,762 vehicles were added during 2007, taking the total at the end of the year
to 629,670. After 2008, new registration shows gradual decrease. On average,
more than 85,000 new vehicles were registered annually in Plateau between the
years 2006 and 2013 (Table 1).
Table
1 Growth
of population and vehicle in Plateau: 2006-2013
Motorization
level, as measured by the number of vehicle per 1000 population, shows that on
average there are 230 vehicles per 1000 population in Plateau. The 2010
population census in Plateau recorded 551,058 households in Plateau State.
Thus, there are approximately 1.3 vehicles per household in Plateau State.
Over all,
motorization shows increasing trends in Plateau. Between 2006 and 2013,
motorization level increased by 25.7%.
Figure 1
presents a comparative picture of the level of motorization (number of vehicle
per 1000 population) in some selected high and middle income cities in Plateau
in 2013. The information were obtained from the 2013 WHO’s global status report
on road safety (WHO, 2013).
Figure 1: Level
of motorization (number of vehicle per 1000 population) in some selected high
and middle income cities in Plateau in 2013
With the absence
of a railway network or water-ways in Plateau, roads remain the primary means
for transporting goods and people within the country. There is no public or
private bus service within the city or suburban area. However, there are
limited intercity bus services, run by a single agency called “Plateau National
Transport Company” (PNTC). Shared private taxi services are also available
within the city and town areas. Thus, private car and Taxi service are the
major modes of personal transport in Plateau. As a result, the most of the
registered vehicle in Plateau are private car which numbers have increased
tremendously in recent time. Figure 2 shows the percentage distribution of
registered vehicles by types of registration in 2013. The data indicate that
private car represents the major share of the registered vehicles, as 70% of
the registered vehicles are private cars, followed by commercially used
vehicles (21%), Taxi (4%), government use (2%), rental (1.3%) and others (each
1.7%). The ratio of number of private cars and the number of households
indicates that there is almost one private car per household in Plateau State (0.96:1).
Figure 2:
Percentage distribution of registered vehicles by types of registration, 2013 Figure
3 shows the trends in the number of registered vehicles by types of license for
the 7-year period starting from 2006 to 2013. During this period the number of
registered vehicles increased, on the average, by 4.3% per annum. This increase
is mainly due to increase in private cars and commercially used cars. Private
cars are increasing annually, on the average, by 7%, while commercially used
cars are increasing by 2.7% per annum. On the other hand, the number of Taxi,
government owns vehicles and other types of vehicles remain almost same over
the period. The possession of private cars shows steady increase over the
period. The growth rate was highest during 2007-2008 (15%). The rate of
possession of private car per 1000 population increased from 126 in 2006 to 195
in 2013. Globally, Plateau’s rank is 52 in terms of car possession per 1000
population, with highest in Nigeria (765 cars 1000 population) (WHO, 2013).
Figure 3 Trends in the number of registered vehicles by
types of license, 2006-2013.
Levels and
Trends in Road Traffic Accidents (RTAs) in Plateau
According to the
2000 National Health Survey in Plateau (Al Riyami et al., 2000), conducted by
the Ministry of Health, road traffic worker is the number one cause of accident
and injury in Plateau State accounting for 61 % of the total accident (Table
2). Other important causes of accident
are accidental fall (22 %), burns (4.8%), bullet accident (1.8%) and food poisoning
(1.2%). Males are 1.5 times more likely to experience injuries than female,
while the rate of accidental fall, burns, and food poisoning are higher among
females.
Table 2: Percent
distribution of accident and injury by causes according to sex, Plateau 2013
Source: Plateau
National Health Survey, 2000:
Volume 1, p136,
Al-Riyami et al., (2000)
Data in Table 3
shows the levels and trends of RTA in Plateau during the first decade of the
new millennium (2000-2009), according to the PPD data source. In absolute term
there were 7,253 traffic accidents in 2009 against 2.7 million population and 755,
937 registered vehicles, indicating a rate of 2.67 accident per 1000 population
or 9.59 accident per 1000 registered vehicles.
Table 3: Level
of RTA per 1000 population and vehicles, 2006-2013
As we may have
seen from Table 3 and Figure 4 that there is an appreciable decline in RTA
rates in Plateau. The number of accidents fell down from 13,040 cases in 2006
to 7,253 in 2013, a dPP of 44% over the period 2006-2013 or a decline of 5.7%
per annum. During the same period, the overall decrease in accident rate was
54% for per 1000 population and 63.5% for per 1000 vehicles. The corresponding
figures for average annual decrease being 7.5% and 9.6%, respectively. This
fall in accident has occurred despite the fact that the number of vehicles on
the roads and new driving licenses as well as the population increased over the
period. This may be a consequence of the traffic safety efforts of PP by
imposing stringent conditions for issuing license and road safety information,
education and communication (IEC) programmes through mass media.
Types of RTAs in
Plateau
Figure 4 shows
the distribution of RTA in Plateau in 2013 by the types and severity. The types
of RTA were categorized as collusion with other vehicles, collusion with fixed
objects, overturn and run over pedestrians. It can be seen that about 70% of
the accidents are due to collision: 48% with other vehicles and 22% with fixed
objects. Sixteen percent of the accidents were due to overturn and 14% were due
to run over the pedestrians. The distribution of RTA by the type of severity
indicate that nearly two third (64%) of the RTA caused injury, while 10.5% caused
fatality and the rest 26% were with minor or no causality (Table 4).
Figure 4: Trends
in rate of RTA per 1000 population and per 1000 registered vehicles in Plateau,
2006-2013
Table 4: Percent
distribution of RTA by characteristics, 2013
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE
VICTIMS
Total
1238 accident cases were included in the study. Majority of the victims (984
cases) were in the younger age group of 15-50 years (79.47%).433 cases(34.97%)
were recorded in the age group of 25-39 years. Children less than 14 yrs and
elderly (>60yrs of age) made up a little 176 cases (14.21%).1099 (88.77%) of
the victims were males with 139 (11.23%) of them being females.
Majority
of the victims were Christians 998 (80.62%) with Muslims and Pagans forming
18.98% and 0.40% respectively. Of the 1238 victims interviewed 925 (74.72%)
were married accounting for 74.72% of the victims, while 313 (25.28%) were not
married (for analysis purpose even victims less than marriageable age were
included in the not married group).
Majority
of the victims had had a primary level of education 31.02%, while 20.27% of the
victims were illiterates. 14.46% of the victims had a degree only one victim
had a professional degree. 27.95% of the victims had a secondary education.
22.62% of the victims were unskilled labourers like manual labourers and
farmers etc. 25.53% of the victims were semi skilled, which included drivers
(taxi, auto, maxi cab etc) all the female victims were housewives accounting
for 6.70% of the injuries.
PATTERN OF INJURIES
Out
of the total 1238 (100%) RTA cases, 118(9.53%) had injuries of upper limb, 297
(23.99%) had injury of lower limb, 495 (39.98%) had injury on the abdomen and
328 (26.49%) had multiple injuries at more than one site. (Table-5)
Table
-5:Pattern of injuries
Part involved in RTI
|
Number of victims(%)
|
Upper
limb
|
118
(9.53)
|
Lower
limb
|
297
(23.99)
|
Abdominal
|
495
(39.98)
|
Multiple
|
328
(26.49)
|
Total(%)
|
1238
(100)
|
|
|
Severity of RTI/TIS
|
|
Mild
|
688 (55.58)
|
Moderate
|
389 (31.42)
|
Severe
|
161 (13)
|
Total
(%)
|
1238
(100)
|
|
|
VULNERABLE
ROAD USERS
|
|
Pedestrian
|
166 (13.41)
|
Cyclist
|
112 (9.05)
|
Motorized two-wheeler
|
514 (41.51)
|
3 wheeler
|
112 (9.05)
|
LMV
|
240 (19.39)
|
HMV
|
68 (5.49)
|
Tractor
|
13 (1.05)
|
Others
|
13 (1.05)
|
Total
|
1238 (100)
|
Severity of injuries
The
severity of injuries suffered by the victims was graded according to the
“Trauma Index”4. According to this index injuries are classified as
mild injuries (0-7), moderate (8-18) and severe injuries (more than 18). So in
this study it was observed that 688 (55.58%)
had a score of 0-7 and categorized under minor injuries, 389 (31.42%) had a score of 8-18 and categorized under moderate injuries and
161 (13%) had > 18 injuries and
put under the category of severe injuries. (Table-5)
Ailment at the time of injury
Among
the victims 223 (18.01%) of them gave a history of having consumed alcohol
within 6 hours before the RTI, whereas 1015 (81.99%) of them had not consumed.
children were grouped under ‘NO’ for simplification, however, no information
was collected as to the type or quantity of alcohol consumed.
Type of vehicle involved Majority
of the victims were two wheeler occupants (riders or pillions) and occupants of
Light Motor vehicles 41.51% and 19.39% respectively. Pedestrians became victims
in 13.41% of cases. Cyclists and occupants of 3 wheelers made up 9.05% each.
(Table-5)
(C) Antecedent Factors
Days of occurrence of injury: In the present
study, 670 (54.12%) accident cases were reported on week days i.e.
Monday-Fridays and remaining 568 (45.88%) on weekends i.e. Saturdays and
Sundays.
Time of occurrence of injury:497 (40.15%) of the RTIs took place between 6.1pm-12midnight, followed by 357 (28.84%)
between 6am-12 noon. 114 caseswith least
RTIs occurred between12.1am -6 am (9.21%).
(Table-6)
Table
-6:Antecedent Factors
Time of Injury
|
Percentage
|
Morning(6am-12 noon)
|
357 (28.84)
|
Afternoon(12.1pm
-6pm)
|
270 (21.80)
|
Evening(6.1pm-12midnight)
|
497 (40.15)
|
Night(12.1am -6 am)
|
114 (9.21)
|
Total
|
1238 (100)
|
|
|
What hit you?
|
|
Unknown
|
32 (2.58)
|
Cycle
|
20 (1.62)
|
Motorized two-wheeler
|
260 (21.0)
|
Three wheeler
|
130 (10.50)
|
LMV ( car, jeep, van)
|
322 (26.01)
|
HMV(bus/truck)
|
160 (12.92)
|
Tractor
|
44 (3.55)
|
Other vehicle
|
25 (2.02)
|
Self fall
|
89 (7.19)
|
Animal
|
36 (2.91)
|
Trees
|
111 (8.97)
|
Electric pole
|
09 (0.73)
|
Total
|
1238 (100)
|
|
|
Type of collision
|
|
Head on
|
204 (16.48)
|
Sideways
|
650 (52.50)
|
From behind
|
173 (13.98)
|
NA
|
211 (17.04)
|
Total
|
100
|
Place of injury
48%
of the RTIs occurred outside the city, whereas 32% of the injuries occurred
inside the city. 20% of the RTIs took place on the outskirts of Ambala.
Where injury occurred?
Majority
of the RTIs took place on main roads 73.8%, followed by near junctions, 14.2%
and cross roads 12.0%.
What hit you?
The
vehicles involved in injuring the victims were LMVs most of the times 322
(26.01%)
followed by motorized two wheelers 21.0% of the times. HMV hit the victims in
12.92% of the cases. 18 (7.19%) victims said that they sustained injury by
self-fall, followed by tractor hitting the victim in 3.55% of the time.
Type of collision
Majority of the times it was a sideways collision 52.50% of the times, followed
by head on collision 16.48% of the times. 13.98% of the times the victims were
hit from behind. (Table-6)
Local environmental condition of the
place of injury: Majority of the victims 1045 (84.41%) responded that the road
on which the RTI took place was tarred. 149 (12.04%) of the victims responded
that the road was rough and 48 (3.88%)
of them responded that the road was wet at the time of injury. 822 (66.2%) of
the victims said that the lighting was adequate at the time of occurrence RTI
(Injuries that took place during day time were included under ‘adequate’
lighting for analysis). 340 (27.46%) of the victims said that there was no
lighting at the site of injury occurrence and 77 (6.22%) of them said that the
lighting was inadequate.
Medical aid at the site of injury
Only
4.12% of the victims mentioned that there was medical aid available at the site
of injury (within 500 meters from the site of injury).
How injury occurred?
Majority
of the victims were injured while there crossing a road 875 (70.68%), 231
(18.66%) of them were injured while they were walking or riding by the side of
the road (foot path). 131(10.58%) of them were injured while they were boarding
or alighting a vehicle.
Use of helmets and seat belts:
Among
the 545 two-wheeler users (riders and pillion) only 158 (28.99%) of them wore a
helmet when they were injured, whereas 387 (71.01%) of them did not wear a
helmet. 693 (55.98%) of them were other road users.
Between
the 492 HMV and LMV users only 66 (13.42%) of them used seat belt. Rest of them
did not use a seat belt.
Presence of driving license among
drivers: 201(16.24%) of
drivers did not had valid driving license.
Cause of event:
Causes
responsible for these road traffic accidents are
shown in figure-5 . Not using indicator lights, not following speed limits, no
proper road signs were most common causes responsible for road traffic
accidents.
Figure-5: Bar diagram showing causes responsible for these
road traffic accidents
Post-Injury Factors
Transportation used for reaching
Medical Centre
The
victims were brought to the hospital by auto 390(31.50%) of the instances,
followed by private vehicle 314 (25.36%). The police used their vehicles to
bring 220 (17.77%) of the victims to the hospital. 103 (8.32%) of the victims
were transported using a taxi, whereas 61(4.93%) victims reached the hospital
by bus/minibus. Ambulances brought the victims to the hospital 150 (12.12%) of
the instances.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY / DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY / DISCUSSION
From the results of the study, it is clear that the
incidences of the Road Traffic Accidents (RTA) are on the increase and
characterized by seasonal factors as can be seen from the high values of the
seasonal indices in Table 5 for the months of January, February, May, June,
October, November and December. This study is in line with previous studies in
developing countries which suggest that RTA has been on the increase. It also
agrees with the results of the study by Eke et al. (2000) that there are
seasonal variations in RTA cases. However, it is at variance with it with respect
to the period where it occurs most. Eke et al. (2000) found that RTAs occur
most during the rainy season (June, July and August) while ours are in the
first and second quarters precisely in the months of January and December which
are dry season period. Considering the fact that heavy road traffics lead to
more RTAs, the difference may be explained by the following facts;
• Universities and Polytechnics
close for Christmas holidays and students go home in the month of December and
to return in the month of January on re-opening
• The heavy traffic on all Nigerian
roads of which the Jos road is no exemption as a result of the Christmas
festival spanning through 1st and 2nd quarters (1st quarter-January, February
and March; 2nd quarter-October, November and December) of the year in Igbo
land, Southeastern Nigeria
• The months of May and June are
very rainy periods and RTA is expected to occur more during this period as a
result of bad road and reduced visibility whenever it is raining
It also agrees with Ezenwa (1986) and Odero (1998)
that reckless driving is a lead cause of RTA in Nigeria. The reason for the
high level of RTA involving Motorcycles (McMc and McV) is not far fetched. As a
result of the high level of unemployment in Nigeria, a lot of the unemployed
youths took to Motor-cycle-riding popularly known in Nigeria as Okada- riding
(Okada-riding is the use of Motorcycle as a means of transpoRTAtion) as a means
of livelihood without being well grounded in good-road-using capabilities such
as ability to read signs and obey traffic rules and regulations. No wonder the Plateau
State Government and most other State Governments have banned Okada riding in most of the major
cities.
It is not uncommon that reckless driving, a human
factor (AUSTROADS, 1994) caused a greater percentage of the RTA. This may be
attributed to the fact that many of the students who ply the road with their
parents or relatives vehicles are bound to be reckless in driving with a view
of impressing their fellow students and most of them are also inexperienced in
driving. This factor also partly explained why larger numbers of vehicles,
involved in RTAs along the road are private cars. More so, most of the staff of
the Institutions live in Jos, the capital city of Imo State and are frequent
users of the road with their private vehicles to and fro.
Mechanical fault and road defects (MRD) which can be
grouped under Vehicle and road and environments factors respectively are also
significant cause of RTA. This is in agreement with AUSTROADS (1994) that says
that one or more of human, Vehicle and road and environment factors must be
involved for RTA to occur. This may be attributed to the fact that the
conditions of most Nigerian roads are generally poor and majority of the vehicles
are fairly used, imported from Europe and Asia (These imported fairly used cars
are locally called Belgium) and majority of them have been used for over 15
years in Nigeria.
On the part of inexperience which is a human factor,
there are too many I-Can-Drive (ICD) drivers (ICD means just the ability to
move vehicles without knowing the rules and regulations guiding road use) using
the road of which a good number of the students belong to this class.
On the part of Mini-buses and Taxis being significantly
involved in RTAs is due to the fact that they are the major means of transport
for the students to and fro. This finding is in agreements with Eke et al.
(2000) and Thanni and Kehinde (2006). While the former have observed that cars
and buses are commonly involved in the casualties of RTAs in Nigeria followed
by motorcycles and Lorries, the latter found that minibuses, the popular mode
of commercial transportation was involved in 63.9% of RTAs, while cars were
involved in 14.8% of cases. Motorcycles and pedal bicycles were involved in 6.2
and 0.6% of cases, respectively while Lorries and trailers were involved in
1.1% of cases each.
Based on the results of the study, the following
preventive measures are suggested:
• Training of drivers should be
made a very serious affair and must be properly supervised by qualified
personnel and traffic road control agents
• Drivers’ licenses should only be
issued to those who have passed through a series of Driver and Traffic Safety
Tests (DTST)
• Motor vehicles should be
thoroughly inspected for roadworthiness before registration. Inspection
checklist should include the number of years the vehicle has been used, rear
and side view mirrors, windscreen wipers, speedometer, brakes and brake lights,
trafficators, reverse and parking lights and so on (Nwokoro, 2005)
• The FRSC, VIO and other Traffic
wardens should step up to their responsibilities and should go extra miles
during the traffic heavy periods (festive and rainy periods) of high RTA level
• Driver and Traffic Safety
Education (DTSE) should be offered as a pre-requisite to the issuance of
driving licenses. DTSE should also be offered in Primary and Post-primary
schools and Tertiary Institutions
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
The fundamental finds of this study are that RTAs in
Plateau State, Nigeria are characterized by an upward trend and seasonal effect
of an appreciable magnitude. Crashes-Motorcycles-Motorcycle (McMc),
Motorcycles-Vehicle (McV) and Vehicle-Vehicle (VV) are the lead types and
accounted for the greater number of deaths. Reckless driving, inexperience and
mechanical fault and bad roads are the major causes while Private cars,
Minibuses and Taxis were predominantly involved in RTA.
The increasing toll of RTA in Plateau State, Nigeria
and consequent deaths and injuries constitute a public health problem which
requires a serious attention since these deaths and injuries may be
preventable.
Though the data used in the study were collected on
different road, however the finds provides an insight into the trend and
characteristics of RTAs in Nigeria.
Road traffic
accident in Nigeria has not received the attention warranted considering the
magnitude of the problem. There is need to view road traffic accident as an
issue that needs urgent attention aimed at reducing the health, social and
economic impacts. 'Safe road' in Nigeria is more of changing our driving behaviour
than just blaming the government alone and advocating for good road
infrastructure.
Factors that are
most responsible for accident on road transportation network have been examined.
The study also considered some of the preventive measures needed to reduce the present
unacceptable high tallies of accidents on the Nigerian highways. The vehicle,
the driver, the road and its environment are among the factors that
increasingly cause road accidents in Nigeria. Measures to reduce the rate of
road traffic accidents have also been highlighted.
Finally, it is our utmost belief that the preventive
measures proffered in this paper will yield spectacular results in Plateau
State and Nigeria in general if properly and honestly adopted.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
Privately
owned mass transit operators should, as a matter of high priority, introduce
and operate comprehensive maintenance and repair programme for their vehicles.
2.
The
Operators (driver) should be properly trained and then retrained.
3.
Transit
organization should operate adequate and comprehensive welfare scheme for their
employees in general and for the drivers in particular, since the lives of all passengers
are in their hands.
4.
As
a matter of necessity, some of the latest scientific techniques for determining
extremely productive schedules for the drivers should now be utilized as the
organizations in question have technically out-grown the use of trial and error
schemes for addressing such problems.
5.
There
is need for the various governments to pay sufficient attention to the maintenance
of all roads in the federation.
6.
Furthermore,
the provision of adequate drainage system is one that calls for urgent attention.
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