AN ORGANOGRAM OF A NAMED MEDIA HOUSE OR
INSTITUTION AND THE FUNCTION OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONARIES AND THE QUALITIES OF AN
EFFECTIVE MEDIA CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Internet refers to the global network of millions of
computing devices that provides a variety of resources and data to users.
It is an essential medium for communicating and
interacting with people world wide. The frequent need to publish and share
information has indeed fueled the rapid growth of the web at a geometric rate.
The internet is the network of net works; as a result,
interconnects set of privately and publicly owned and managed networks. The
internet orchestrated a frame work of knowledge driver global village. Due to
its unimaginable speed of information transmission, experts identify it as
information super highway.
Mostly, these computing devices and conventional desk
top and laptop PCS, unix-based workstations and servers which store and
transmit information such as Web pages and e-mail messages. Also, increasing
non-conventional computing devices such as web TVs, mobile computers, pagers
and toaster are now being connected to the internet.
The internet is built to link both private and public
owned networks, but each network must run the IP protocol (internet dial tone)
and conform to certain naming and addressing conventions. Though it may seem
strenuous or pose a constraint, yet it is a must observe standard, due to the
universal use of IP protocol in the internet.
CHAPTER TWO
THE EARLY
BEGINNINGS OF THE INTERNET
In a lot of ways, war is the mother of invention and
during the 1950s, beside the Korean war, there was also the cold war. The cold
war pitted the USA against the soviet union and the eastern Bloc. Nothing was
scarier than the soviet Union launching nuclear weapons against U.S soil. While
there were plenty of events that scared US Americans during this time, one
event made it seem that the Russians were pulling ahead of American technology
and know how the launching sputnik satellite.
With the launch of the sputnik satellite in 1957,
American feared that the Soviet Union would not only militarize space, but be
able to gain a huge advantage over and this threatened their very society. In
reaction to the launching of sputnik, the USA tried to come up with ideas in
how to protect themselves against the Soviet Union and diminish their strategic
advantages. One of the ways that they responded to this crisis was to create ARPA (Advanced research project agency),
now known as DARPA (Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency) this agency was given the mission to create
technologies that would help give our military a high technological edge. The
goal was to once again lead in the arms race, as well as protect the country
and security.
While DARPA was launched in the late 1950s, it wasn’t
till 1962 that the first ideas about
a web or interconnected net type of system were formed. First written about by J.C.R Licklider of MIT in August of
1962, Licklider wrote several memos in what he termed was a “Galactic network”.
In essence, this Galactic network was able to access information in electronic
form either by data or programs from a large network of computers. The key was
that all of the computers in this Galactic network would be some way connected
to each other. In that year, Licklider headed up the first computer research
program for DARPA.
Beside the idea of a Galactic network, there were
other ideas and events that played a part in ultimately creating the early
internet. Another event that figured prominently into the history of the
internet is a commissioned study by the USAF
on how the military would be able to keep and maintain control and command of
air planes, bombers and nuclear missiles during and after nuclear attack.
Pretty much, the USAF wanted to understand the best ways to create a
decentralized network of communications in order to run the branch of the
military during and after a nuclear strike. The important point was that this
command would have to be decentralized, so no matter the extent of damage, the
military would still be able to control its nuclear weapons, air planes and
bombers in order to counter sticker protect itself. The original study was
commissioned and overseen by Paul Beran,
a member of the RAND corporation.
As the RAND corporation completed its final report of
the study, Paul Beran suggested that
one way to advise decentralization and accomplish the goals put forth by the
USAF is to institute a type of technology called Packet Switching in a network.
THE PACKET SWITCHING THEORY
With the Galactic network by
Licklider, the solution offered by Paul Beran there were other early players
that influenced the creation of the early internet. Another aspect called packet
switching theory, which was developed by Leonard
Weinorck at MIT in 1961 also
played a huge part in the early origins.
The idea of packet switching is that
a packet of data which included both it’s origin and destination could be sent
from one location to the other. While this might seem like a simple idea, the
technology at that time was different, specifically the type and how data
traveled when used in the phone company’s circuits. One of the differences in
packet switching technology than what was being used was if a packet of data
was lost at any given point in its journey, the packet could be easily resent
by the originator. This was not the case with data being sent at the time.
While packets of data being sent which included the origin and destination was
a big improvement over the current circuit system used by the telephone
company. Another component of creating the internet that resembles the one used
today was the idea that a decentralized system of computers could communicate
with one another. During the 1960s, there were many experiments that tried to
create productive and efficient networks of computers. At this time, computers
were very specialized machines and some were huge taking up an entire room. In
1965 an experiment took place in which a TX-2 computer that was located in
assadiusetts connected with a Q-32 computer in California. This experiment was successful and it is considered to
this day to be the first time a connection of two computers was made using a
low speed dial up phone line. The experiment specifically proved that not only
can two computers connect to one another but it also demonstrated that
computers can both exchange programs and data with each other. While the
experiment was successful, it was clear that the current sets of telephone
circuits were not practical and that packet switching technology would be
needed to advance this technology.
THE FIRST INTERNET - ARPANET
The original internet was known as
the ARPANET. The Arpanet was pretty
much the first configuration of a network of computers and while in its very
early stages, the Arpanet was a huge spring board of innovation to the
technologies we now use today. The physical construction for the Arpanet
occupied in 1968 and it used the honey
well minicomputer for its base. In fact, it took a network of four honey
well minicomputers to create the first Arpanet, these computers or nodes were
located at four separate universities including the University of California at Santa Barbara, the university at stand
ford and the university of Utah. While the network was originally supposed to
have a line speed of only 2.4 (thousand bits per second technology) was already
available to boost the line speed to 50 k bps. It is also important to note
that contributions to computing and communications changed our world
completely. Unfortunately, these innovation, inventions and contributions are
unknown or unnamed toady. As the first internet, the Arpanet started to build
up team and practicality during the 1970s.
THE INTERNET PROGRESSES INTO THE 1970S
The internet grew in leaps and
bounds during the 1970s. After its initial start in late 1969, the Arpanet as
it then was known was about to experience rapid changes not only to its own
network, but to the massive amounts of technology and innovations that helped
grow the internet during the 1970s is an application still considered to be the
internet’s “Killer app”.
As the 1970s where under way, plenty
of experimenting took place with Arpanet. In fact, another 19 computers were
hooked up into the apparent network. By 1972, the list of computers hooked into
Arpanet totaled 23 host computers that made up the backbone of the network. And
while many computers were hooked up, the line speed still continued to be 50kbps.
During the eerily days much innovation took place and protocols were being
developed, the initial host protocol was crated called NCP or Network Control Protocol.
It turned out that 1972 was a banner
year for the internet, in fact, that was the year that the killer app that not
only spread the use of the Arpanet in its early days, but continued to fuel
growth over the coming years and decades took place the application that
changed the internet forever was e-mail.
Ray
Tomlinson is known as the creator of E-mail. Created in 1972, Ray Tomlin
working for BBN Corporation created the foundation for the basics of sending
and reading messages over the Arpanet. While this initial invention was
extremely crude. Over the years much innovation went into making emails more
user friendly. e-mail not only gave the ARPANET a great application, but added
a social dimension to this burgeoning network.
CREATION OF NEW PROTOCOL
Today, when we connect our computer to the internet,
we are able to talk with millions, upon millions of computers. And while the
first ARPANET network consisted of only 19 computers, the one big disadvantage
was that the protocol being used NCP
(network control protocol) only worked with specific types of computers. But today,
if your computer logged onto the internet and was only able to talk with
Toshiba, Apple or Sony computers. This was the problem that Arpanet was facing
in the early 1970s. There were much more than a few dozen computers that would
like to connect to the Arpanet. However, NCP was only able to utilize a few
dozen at best. Since this was a major flaw with NCP, a new protocol needed to
be created. A new more inclusive type of open source protocol needed to be
developed. This new protocol turned out to be TCP/IP. It was originally created in 1973 and it was first used to
communicate between computers in 1974. In fact, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn,
two internet pioneers were considered the first individuals to utilize TCP/IP
protocol and in a few years, NCP was no longer needed, making Arpanet requiring
TCP/IP instead. Many that are familiar with internet protocol recognize TCP/IP
since it is still in use to this very day.
THE GROWTH OF ARPANET BEYOND THE UNITED
STATES
While the early 1970s would prove to
be the formative years for the early internet, as the 1970s unfolded many
innovations took place that expanded Arpanet’s reach past the shores of
American and around the would for the first time. It was the Sputnik satellite that originally got the idea off the ground and less than
20 years later it was the satellite that led to the development of the first
transatlantic link. The ARPANET expanded without the help of a fixed line for
the first time, instead, using satellite radio waves to transmit data packets.
This first satellite line was called STANET.
SATNET effectively connected both
the USA and Europe (Norway to be exact) and then Norway connected the rest of
Europe to the network of computers. While the military started Arpanet, it grew
bigger than just a military project. In fact, the satellites that were used in
the SATNET project were owned not by the US military, but a consortium of
several countries.
MAKING THE CONNECTION EASIER AND QUICKER
While the ARPANET and STANET expanded the reach of the first internet,
connecting computers to the internet was still a Hodge podge of cables and
quite unorganized. This led to the creation of the Ethernet cables. The
Ethernet cable to their modem and then to their ISP (internet service
provider).
Ethernet offers an easy, economical
and practical way to move data quickly from one computer to another computers
or device at high speeds. Ethernet cables not only made connecting a LAN (Local Area Network) more simple,
but increased the speed at which these computers can talk to one another.
Beside Ethernet, another major innovation developed during the 1970s was UUCP which stood for (Unix to Unix Copy). This innovation was
created by Steve Belloovin. It was a
protocol developed for computers that run on the unix platform. During the
1970s, windows and mac oss didn’t exist. Many more technical types of platforms
were available-unix being one. As UUCP developed more throughout the years, it
grew into what is now known as unsent. Unsent is a news group network still used
by millions of people to send news, data files and email throughout the
internet. As the 1970s came, the Arpanet changed drastically while its started
with only a few computers, by 1979, it had around III computers linked into the
network, however, the line speed continued to be the same at 50 kbps. As the
1980s would start, there would be huge changes to the internet as it is to day.
THE GROWTH OF INTERNET IN 1980S
While the 1970s saw the very beginning of the internet
called the ARPANET and innovations in packet protocol, Ethernet, UUCP and SATNET, during the 1980s, the internet
changed drastically, never to be the same. By the end of the decade, the
internet will be well on its way of becoming the internet as we know and
experience today.
There were many reasons why during
the 1980s the internet changed drastically.
First:
The result of many technical innovations that occupied
and most of these innovations happened due to much more smaller, faster and
affordable computers and hardware. No longer were computers out of reach of
most users and organizations. During the 1980s, computers became common place
and were easily affordable to universities, businesses and ultimately
individuals. But beside the influx of technology, many new organizations were developed
to help manage the many new users that were utilizing the internet in its growing
forms.
For instance, during this 10 years
period, the internet grew form about 150 computer hosts on the net to a
staggering 200,000 computers by the end of 1980. As the internet took off, the
technology and potential known as the internet was finally being fulfilled.
THE EARLY 1980S
ARPANET still continued to dominate the internet
during the 1980s but other networks were already established and continued to
grow. While ARPANET was created by the government for military use initially, more
and government programmes were utilizing the Arpanet along with a wide variety
of research institutions. One network that found the ARPANET quite useful was
the national science foundation, they created a network called the CSNET (computer science network). CSNET was specifically created to
conduct scientific research. While many organizations wanted to connect to ARPANET
unfortunately, not all were allowed or capable of doing so. The CSNET made it easier for a research
institute to communicate with one another. Finally in 1981, a plan was put into place that finally allowed computers that
utilized either Arpanet or CSNET to connect both nets, making an easy way for
both networks to communicate with each other.
There were other innovations that improved
communications between computers around the country and world. One innovation
that is still in use today and proved to make the internet more uniform and facilitate
use was the creation of DNS (Domain Name System).
BIG EVENTS IN 1985
During the early to mid 1980s plenty of innovation
occurred and the prices of technology and hardware became much more affordable.
Moore’s law, which states that a
computer chip will double in power and halve in price every 18 months was being
realized and as more and more business, organizations and individuals purchased
computers and as they became easier to use, many wanted more than just a stand
alone appliance. They wanted to talk and connect with others around the world.
1985 turned out to be a huge year for the internet. The ARPANET was growing
exponentially year after year and in 1985, there were over 1,000 computers
(hosts) connected to the network. While this network was initially created for
military uses, other organizations found it to be useful including
universities, businesses and more. The department of defense came to the
realization that its military programs that were also on the network would be a
liability and easy to attack. So the Arpanet was split into two, one net for
military purposes now called MILNET
and the existing ARPANET which was now dedicated to other disciplines without
any military components on it. It should still be noted that ARPANET continued
to be supported by the DOD (Department
of Defense) even though military organizations didn’t utilize the network.
THE INTERNET AT THE EARLY 1990S
During the 1990s as the internet
continued to take off, there were plenty of innovations that spurred more and
more growth. Beside being more popular with individual users, other areas
entered into the mix including innovations that included the social side of the
internet and the commercial side that continued to fuel money and research into
this incredible technology.
As stated earlier before, speed at
which the transfer of information occurred was about 1.5 mbps with a T-1 line,
however in the late 805 a new, faster line of communications was planed, it
finally became operational in 1991. It was the T-3 line and it made
communication incredibly fast at 45 mbps. With this new T-3line the slower,
more cumbersome CSNET was no longer needed. It was finally retried.
In the early 1990s the internet had
about 300,000 host computers, however, by the end of the decades the number
would be in the hundred of millions and today the amount of computers tied to
the internet is likely in the billions with so much innovation over the last
decades, the internet grew from a couple of dozen computers to billion in blink
of an eyes.
THE INTERNET AS WE KNOW IT TODAY
While the internet started in late
1969 it revealed it’s true potential by the end of the 1980s. However,
throughout the 1990s, the internet continued to grow in leaps and bounds beyond
anyone’s comprehension.
While the internet grew, it required
the help of many components including more and more powerful home computers,
software, overall technological advances and applications that made it
worthwhile for common people to use.
THE WORLD WIDE WEB (W.W.W)
The vast majority of internet users
do not start up their computers and log onto the ARPANET they usually open our
browsers and start typing w.w.w. which stands for the world wide web and this
web is one of the most important innovations that the internet has seen in it’s
relatively short life. The world wide web is pretty much a platform that makes
it easy to access data on the internet.
Microsoft was extremely effective in
promoting their IE (Internet
Explorer) browser, in fact they did this by bundling the software with their
operating system, most notably Windows
98. While net scape had about 85% of the browser share in the mid 90s by
2003 Netscape was used by less than 1% and is now defunct. Today, internet explorer
is still the dominant brewers are now available and have been eating into
Microsoft’s market share inducing the open source Moxilla Browser Fire fox, Google’s
chrome, Safari and more.
CREATION OF THE FIRST MAINSTREAM SEARCH
ENGINE
Going back to early 1990s, the web
was more or less a huge depot of information. Unfortunately, there was no easy
way to organize it to help the millions of people now able to access the web
find the information that they were looking for.
Yahoo
was created by two students, one was Jerry
yang. In January 1994, he
created Jerry’s Guid to the world wide web. However, it wasn’t until march of 1995 that yahoo was incorporated.
GOOGLE, TODAY’S ULTIMATE SEARCH ENGINE
While yahoo was the pretty much the
first major search engine, a few years later, Google took over the reigns and
became the de-factor search engine and of the largest companies in the world.
The popularity of the site and its clean almost baron home page without the
clutter of advertising was seen as attractive to many. However, not only was
Google a great search engine that delivered extremely relevant results, it was
able to monetize it’s technology with targeted text ads that made Google com
one of the most profitable companies in the history of the world.
ACCESSING THE INTERNET
While the internet grew in leaps and
bounds during the 1990s, it was fueled in part, because it was more and more
easier to access. For instance, during the early 1990s, many accessed the web
via an ISP internet service provide. Since broadband technology was mostly in
development in those years by big corporations and organizations that could
afford T-1 or T-3 lines, most individuals utilized dial –up access to the
internet.
CHAPTER THREE
CONCLUSION
The all antic cable of 1858 was established to carry
instantaneous communications across the ocean for the first time.
The manufacture of the cable started in early 1857 and
was completed in June. Before the end of July, it was stowed on the American
“Niagara” and the British, “Agamemnon” both naval vessels lent by their
respective governments for the task.
Although the laying of this first cable was seen as a
landmark even in society, it was a technical failure. It only remained in
service a few days. Subsequent cables laid in 1866 were completely successful and
the internet has been in use ever since then.