CHAPTER ONE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The animal protein consumption level has direct
influence on the general well – being and health status of any populace. The
overwhelming animal protein deficiency common in most rural families in the developing
countries are yet to be alleviated. Report from Ojating (1997), using Nigeria
as a case study, advocated the rearing of short cycle micro – livestock such as
rabbit in order to maintain sustainable animal protein sufficiency in
development countries. Obike and Ibe (2010) reported that domestic rabbits
serve as cheap source of high quality protein that can substantially improve
the level of animal protein production and consumption in these countries. Lebas
et al., (1997), stated that rabbits
have high reproduction potentials and fast growth rate due to their high feed
utilization ability.
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Rabbits keeping has gained ground
among Nigerian households and researchers as an alternative source of animal
protein and experimental material and its potential in cushioning the effect of
world food shortage has been stressed (Chen et
al.,1978). The productive efficiency of rabbits is measured by the number
of young raised to weaning or slaughter per unit time. In rabbits, individual
birth weight is about 60-70 grams. But can also range form 35-40 and 80-90
grams (Poigner et al., 2000). Characteristics
such as litter size at birth and litter size at weaning. Kit weight at birth
and kit weight at weaning are some of the trait of economic importance that
need to be studied before any management
system can be profitable in the rabbit industry. Evaluation of productive
performance of animals constitutes essential parts of successful breeding plans
for sustainable genetic improvement. Therefore, consideration of pre-weaning
performance of domestic rabbit in the humid tropics is important for their
genetic improvement for better future performances particularly for the
commercial meat type rabbit.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study was conducted to:
1. Evaluate
the effect of breed type on litter size, pre-weaning and weaning body weight of
rabbits
2. Determine
the correlation between the litter size and body weight at different ages.
3. Estimate
the weaning weight using litter size, and birth weight of rabbits.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Rabbit producers are interested on
the relationship that exists between litter size, birth weight and the pre
weaning performance and some time post weaning performance of rabbit, since
this information would reflect in their future performances. Breeders need to
establish the relationship that exists between these parameters in order to
organize accurate breeding programme so as to achieve an optimum combination of
body weight for maximum economic returns. Rabbit is highly prolific animal with
short gestation period of about 30-32 days (Louise, 1996) and cable of breeding
or reproducing up to three or more litters in a year. Rabbit meat is popularly
known as Lagomeat, is reach in protein and very low in cholesterol, hence
capable of reducing any adverse health condition to the consumers. It is easy
to establish and require little capital for starting hence can be established
with minimal cost requirement. The breed with the best record in terms of
disease resistance, better litter size and weight at birth and weaning should
be used for production. This in turn will give the best productive performance,
increase the farmer’s revenue, reduces unemployment and enhance the standard of
living of the farmer, reduce rural to urban drift and above all bring about
development to the rural farmers who embark on such venture. There is need for
people to encourage rabbit production as they do not fully compete with man in
the conventional feed ingredient such as grains rather they feed on kitchen
waste materials and some forages which are not consumed by man and other
animals as this in turn will help reduce the cost of productions.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ORIGIN
AND DOMESTICATION OF RABBIT
Domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is a descendant of wild rabbits of Europe and North
Africa. This animal (rabbit) is thought to have been discovered by Phoenicians
when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000BC (Lebas et al.,1998). During the
time of Romans, rabbit was emblematic of Spain. It appears that the Romans
spread the rabbit throughout the Roman Empire as a game animal. In their
natural habitat, rabbits are gregarious and prolific. They are also completely
herbivorous (eat only plants) and mostly forage in the twilight or in the dark.
The average life span of a rabbit is 5-10 years (potential life span of 15
years is possible).
Rabbits are ideal for small
livestock projects in peri-urban or rural areas, especially in developing
countries such as Nigeria with a significant proportion of citizenry living
below poverty datum line (World Bank, 2003). Rabbits are quite clean and relatively
odourless. The raising of rabbit can be anything from a profitable hobby to a
full-time living rabbits fit well into a balanced farming system. Rabbits
production complement well with vegetable growing. Excess and waste from
vegetable gardens and kitchen goes to feeding of rabbits, whereas their manure
is used to fertilize gardens thus forming a profitable cycle and aiding the balance
of nature. The reasons for raising rabbits are manifold. Rabbits are important
source of food, particularly in Europe and Asia. Rabbits produce white meat
that is high in protein, low in fat, highly palatable, low in cholesterol and
can substitute poultry in most recipes. Rabbit carcasses are only 20% bone. In
the United State, rabbits are raised mainly for non-food purposes. High quality
rabbit skins are used in fur garments (clothing, hats), to cover bicycles
seats, etc. and their use could spark a village industry/crafts projects. Another
significant use of rabbits is in cosmetic, medical and pharmaceutical research
laboratories.
2.2 BREEDS
OF RABBITS
Rabbits are generally classified
according to size, weight and type of pelt. Small rabbits weigh about 1.4 to
1.8kg at maturity, Medium breeds weigh about 4.1 to 5.4kg and large breeds
weight 6.4 to 7.3kg. The two most popular breeds for meat production are the
New Zealand white and the California. These breeds are the most popular because
they have white fur preferred by processors and good growth characteristics. New Zealand white is slightly larger
than the Californian, 4.1 to 5.9 versus 3.6 to 4.5kg. The New Zealand rabbits
has a completely white, red or black body whereas the Californian is white with
coloured nose, ears and feet.
2.3 RABBIT
PRODUCTION
In 1994, world’s production of
rabbit meat was estimated to be 1.5million tons per annum, this would mean per
caput annual consumption of 280g per person per year. The six major world’s
rabbit producing countries are Italy, Russia, Ukraine, France, China, and Spain
(Akinmutimi and Onwukwe, 2002). In Africa, the leading rabbit producing countries
are Morocco and Nigeria and these are reported to produce 20000 to 99000 tons
of meat per year (Moreki, 2004). For over three decades now, the contribution
of smallholder rabbit units to food security in developing countries has been
clearly recognized (Lukefahr and Cheeke, 1991). Rabbit production in Nigeria is
largely traditional, non-commercially oriented, family consumption targeted and
small holder type comprising 2-7 does and 3 bucks (Taiwo et al., 1999). About 3.4-5.2% of the Nigeria population may be
keeping rabbits with women and children being mostly involved (Egbunike, 1997). Rabbit keeping is both intensive and semi
intensive, though some scattered free range backyard rabbit keeping has been
recorded (Isaac et al., 2010).Backyard rabbit rearing in Nigeria provides
additional income and supplies additional protein for poor rural and urban
households with low investment and labour inputs.
2.4 IMPORTANCE
OF RABBIT PRODUCTION
Rabbits have a potential as meat
producing animals in the tropics due to their characteristics such as small
body size, short generation interval, rapid growth rate and ability to utilize
forage or agricultural by-products (Iraqi, 2003). The wastes from products
grading before selling to the market, such as vegetable wastes, are well
utilized as feed resources for rabbits and the manure from the animal could be
used as an organic fertilizer for crops (Mikled, 2005).Rabbits could contribute
significantly to solving the problem of meat shortage (Lebas, 1983; Taylor,
1980). Production systems with small or large ruminants usually need a long
time to give a saleable product and with high cost, especially for feeds.
According to Ruiz-Feria et al., (1998), rabbits can subsist on
inexpensive diets based on forages under small-scale farm conditions in arid
and tropical regions. Agricultural by-products, foliages and weeds such as
controsema pubescent, cassava root meal, rice bran, natural grasses and leucaena
can be used as dietary ingredients for rabbits (Lukefahr and Checke, 1991,
Ruiz-feria et al., 1998).
The rabbit plays a role as an
alternative food source, particularly for people in developing countries. It is
claimed that there are far traditional/ social taboos concerning the eating of
rabbit meat (Mamattah, 1978).According to (Elemele et al, 1980). Dry rabbit manure contains 18.8% crude protein, 9.0%
moisture, 13.5% crude fibre and 19.2MJ gross energy per kg. In the same study,
100g of rabbit manure per kg of diet can be fed to broiler chicks and there
will be no decline in growth rate as compared to performances when placed on
standard diet. Rabbit manure has also been experimentally fed to rabbits (Swick
et al., 1978) and could be fed to
ruminants as well. Rabbit and other animals manures can be used to produce
methane gas as a household sources of alternative energy (SIC Waten and Stahl,
1982, Jacobs, 1986; Trujillo et al., 1991). Scientist use the animals in
experiments dealing with nutrition and medical research; manufacturers use them
for testing of products and in addition, the animal is being used as pet.
2.5 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF RABBITS
2.5.1 CRUDE PROTEIN
Protein is perhaps the most frequent
nutrient lacking in the diets of rabbits primarily because the common energy source
such as maize and other cereal grains and tuber crops are low in protein. Rabbits
make its own particular proteins from the proteins and amino acids they obtain
from their food (Fielding, 1991, Kellems and Church, 2006). This protein
synthesis uses up energy.
The ten essential amino acids which
must be provided in the diet for rabbits to survive and grow are, lysine, methionine,
arginine, phenylalanine histidine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, leucine,
isoleucine, (Fielding, 1991). Essential amino acids need to be included in the
ration for rabbits. Lysine and methionine are usually the amino acids that are
found to be deficient in rabbit ration (Gillespie, 1998). While there is
bacterial protein synthesis in the caecum, it is not enough to meet the
essential amino acid requirements of rabbits.
For rabbits, the recommended crude
protein level in the dry matter of the ration is over 18% for newly weaned
rabbits, 16-18% for rabbits from 12-24 weeks, 15-17% for breeding does, and
12-14% for all other stock (Fielding, 1991). Several researchers have
investigated the protein requirement of growing rabbits. In an experiment in
which Martina and Damianan (1983) fed rabbits with decreasing crude protein
levels of 18.08, 16.32, 14.22 and 12.50%, they found that crude protein could
be reduced to 16.32% with lysine and methionine supplementation without
affecting weight gain and feed efficiency. Different results were obtained when
Carregal and Nikuma (1983) used diets with increasing crude protein levels,
14.3%, 17.2% and 21.4%, as they found no significant difference among groups of
rabbits with regard to body weight, feed intake or feed conversion efficiency. According
to Pond et al., (1995) dietary
protein quality is particularly important for rapidly growing weaning rabbits,
which may not have well developed caecal fermentation. Recent research has
demonstrated that the amino acid requirements are age dependent and change
during the reproduction cycle of the does. In early growth state (4-7 weeks of
age), rabbits need a higher amino acids is more pronounced (Taboada et al., 1994)
Many research reports have shown
that a reduction of the level of protein and essential amino acids in the
diets, from an optimum level for growth in animals, is associated with a
decreased growth rate and efficiency of feed utilization and concomitant
increase in body fatness (Wahlstrom and Libal, 1974, Noblet and Henry, 1977,
Russell et al., 1983). Dietary
protein level is one of the several non-genetic factors that influence the
amount of body fat in animals (Marks, 1990 and Wang et al., 1991) Forbes (1995) reported that if the amino acid content
in the feed of animals differed widely from animal’s requirement for amino
acids, feed intake would be depressed and that if the deficient amino acid was
supplemented, intake would be increased.
2.5.2 ENERGY
Although energy is not a nutrient,
but Rabbit requires 10% energy, hence this can be met by the microbial protein
and energy of the cecotrophs, it is a property of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins when they are oxidized during metabolism (Stephen, 2009). The energy
needed by rabbits for organic synthesis is usually supplied by carbohydrates
and a lesser extent by fats. When there is an excess of protein, a process of
diminution will take place and energy will be supplied.
Rabbits adjust their feed intake as
a function of their dietary energy concentration (Part ridge, 1989). According
to partridge (1989), this regulation of intake to achieve constant daily intake
is only possible at a dietary digestible energy concentration above
2250kcal/kg. Several factors influence the energy requirements of rabbits
(Kellems and Church, 2006). These include productive function (growth,
lactation, maintenance, etc), sex, age, body size and environment (Temperature,
humidity, air-movement). As temperatures decrease, the rabbit requires more
energy to maintain normal body temperature (Gillespie, 1998). And to compensate
for this increase energy, either the intake level of fed must be increased or
the energy content of the ration must be increased.
Average maintenance requirement
determined in growing rabbits is about 100kcal DE/Kg 0.75 (Maertens,
1992). Fed on energy-concentrated foods, rabbits can satisfy their
requirements, but this is not possible on forages alone because forages are
usually dilute source of energy (Fielding, 1991); hence when fed only on
forages they cannot obtain as much energy as those fed on concentrated foods
such as maize grains or cereal grains. Rabbits according to Cheeke, (1986)
require a diet of 2200kcal DE/Kg DM; 2.4-3.5MJDE/Kg DM; or 2.0-3.0MJ ME/KgDM.
Products of microbial degradation of dietary fibre which contributes to the
energy demand of the host animal, are the volatile fatty acids (VFAS). An
effective absorption of VFAS from the large intestine has been demonstrated in
all non-ruminant herbivores which have been investigated (Hintz et al., 1972).
In rabbits, about 10-20% of
maintenance energy expenditure comes from VFA (Hoover and Heitman, 1972).
Despite the apparently poorer utilization of fibre by rabbits than by horses or
ruminants, VFAS absorbs 30% of the maintenance energy requirement (Parker,
1976). Pond et al., (1995) reported that digestible energy levels in typical
rabbits diets are quite low, being in the range of 2400-2800kcal/kg weight
diet. They further indicated that higher energy levels impair animal
performance and result in reduced energy intake.
Rabbits are efficient users of
starch in cereal grains and preter barley to corn (Gillespia, 1998) when given
a choice of cereal grains. Diets that are based on corn have produced poorer growth rates as compared to barley or
oat-based diets (Gillespia, 1998). About 3% fat is recommended in rabbit diets,
dietary fat is well utilized by rabbits and improved diet palatability and
increases energy level without causing carbohydrate overload of the hindgut
(Pond et al., 1995). The rabbit, for instance the breeding doe, adjusts its
feed intake according to the energy concentration of the feed as well as the
protein and other dietary components present (Lebas et al., 1986); to around
220-240kcal of digestible energy (DE) per kg metabolic weight.
2.5.3 CRUDE FIBRE
According to Martens (1988),
although fibre is not considered a real nutrients in rabbits because of its low
digestibility (average dietary digestibility is less than 20%), it is
considered a nutrient to maintain the gut motility. Cell-wall constituents from
feedstuff having low lignin content or young plants having a considerable higher
digestibility than highly liquefied sources, 40-70% versus 5-20% respectively.
It is not clear what the minimum fiber in take for prevention of diarrhea in
rabbits should be. Research report from Blas
et al., (1994) and Gidenne and Jehl, N. (2000) examined the effect of low
fibre diets to rabbits, and observed that a sharp decrease in fibre level from
9-19% in the diet doubled the risk of digestive trouble.
The population of cellulolytic
bacterial decreased in the caecum and the microbial ecology system in the
caecum become unbalanced which may cause death from diarrhea. Feeding of
rabbits with a diet low in fibre and high in energy or a finely ground
concentrate diet. Can result in high mortality due to intestinal disorders such
as enterotoxemia (Lukefahr and Checke, 1991). The significant role of dietary lignin
(ADL) on the rate of passage and its protective effect against diarrhea has
been demonstrated by the French INRA (Institute national de la Recherche Agiono
Mique) team.
The
mortality rate as a result of digestive disorders was closely related (r=0.99)
to the ADL level in their experiments. The relationship was expressed as follows:
mortality rate (%) = 15.8-1.08 ADL(%) n>2,000 rabbits.
Quite similar effects were observed
by the same team of researchers with various cellulose (ADF-ADL) levels. They
clearly indicated that the recommendations in terms of dietary safety cannot be
expressed as a single fibre fraction. Furthermore, recommendations of dietary
fibre are age dependent. Young rabbits require higher minimum levels that
fattening or breeding does, probably because of their lower daily intake to
reduce enteritis. An excess of dietary fibre is also not desirable because
digestible energy (DE) content decreases and a too high protein-to-energy ratio
is commonly the result. Such a situation is favourable for the proteolytic
flora that produces ammonia with an increasing risk of digestive disorders (De
Blas, 1981; Lebas, 1989).
Besides dietary fibre, starch also
plays a key role in the nutrition-enteritis interaction. Young rabbits have an
immature pancreatic enzyme system that can lead to significant amount of starch
reaching the caecum when using high starch diets, especially dietary starch
with higher resistance (corn) against hydrolysis could lead to starch overload.
The risk of destabilization of the caecal flora is higher if the increased ileal
starch flow is not accompanied with a similar increase of fibre intake (Gidenne
et al., 1998). Rabbits use crude
fibre less efficiently due to a faster rate of passage of digesta and smaller
holding capacity, compared to grazing ruminants. Rabbits are therefore more
selective in their diets than ruminants (Jarvis C., 1976).
Optimal fiber balance also includes
a dietary recommendation for particle size. A
sufficient amount of large-size particles is required for optimal performance
and to reduce the risk of digestive disorders. According to De Blas et al, (1999) a minimum proportion of
25% of large particles (>0.315mm) is required. Chemical composition and form
of fibre not only affected its susceptibility to digestion but can also
influence feeding habits.
2.5.4 MINERALS AND VITAMINS
Pond et al., (1995) stated that the major mineral elements of concern in
rabbit diet formulation are calcium and phosphorus (Ca and P), and that the
other minerals are usually provided in adequate amounts by the ingredients used
plus the addition of trace mineral salt.
Studies on the calcium and phosphorus requirements of growing rabbits have
shown that they need these minerals much less than lactating does. The amounts
excreted through the milk are significant. However, excess of calcium
(>40g/kg) or phosphorus {>19g/kg) induce significant alternation of
fertility and prolificacy or higher proportions of still births. Total dietary
phosphorus intake ranging from 0.45 to 0.76% did not affect any of the does’
reproduction performances (Lebas and Jouglar, 1990).
The lack of response to low-dietary
phosphorus levels has been confirmed with fatteners (Lebas et al., 1998). The Ca:P ratio does not seem to be critical for
rabbits (Lebas et al., 1998) and is
usually 2:1, however, rabbits can
tolerate much higher ratios copper sulphate which is often used as a
non-nutritive feed additive aids.
In preventing enteritis (Pond et al.,1995). Fielding (1991) stated that rabbit are born with high
level of mineration in their livers, sufficient for their pre-weaning growth.
Rabbits require water-soluble (B group and C) as well as fat-soluble vitamins
(A,D, E and K). According to Lukefahr and Cheeke (1991) the major vitamins
needed in rabbit diets are vitamins A,D and E and that protein and carbohydrate
dietary sources, fed in good variety, may largely meet the mineral and vitamin
requirements.
Micro organisms in the digestive
flora synthesize sizeable amounts of water soluble vitamins which are utilized
by the rabbits through caecotrophy. Vitamin K and the B vitamins are not
required in the diet, since they are synthesized through coprophagy and
fermentation in the caecum or hindgut; likewise vitamin C (Lukefahr and Cheke,
1991). Under practical conditions, the B-Complex vitamins are not dietary
essential for rabbits; however, under stress situations and at high performance
levels deficiencies can occur (Ismael, 1992).
Gillespie (1998) has indicated that
the use of iodized salt at the rate of 0.5% of the diet will supply the needed
sodium, chlorine and iodine for rabbits. The vitamin A requirement of rabbits
has not been adequately determined and a level of 10,000IU/Kg of diet is
adequate while levels in excess of 40,000 IU/Kg diet may adversely affect
reproduction Pond et al., 1995). They further stated that vitamin A-deficient
rabbits exhibit poor growth, leg deformities, increased susceptibility and a
high incidence of enteritis. Vitamin C supplementation is recommended for
rabbits under stress (Verde and Piquer, 1986).
2.5.5 WATER AS A NUTRIENT FOR RABBITS
Water is normally considered a
nutrient, although its properties and functions are quite different from other
nutrients found in feeds. Water is the major component of the rabbit’s body,
making up 70% of the lean body mass (Maertens, 1992). Maertens (1992) further
indicated that rabbits will die more rapidly from water deprivation than from
food deprivation.
Restricted drinking water or limited
drinking time leads to reduced feed intake that is directly proportional to the
amount of water being consumed (Szendro et
al., 1988). They further reported that water and feed consumption varies
with changes in environmental temperature and humidity.
An excessive temperature rise will
reduce feed intake and increase water consumption. According to Pond et al., (1995) water plays an essential
role in a number of functions vital to an animal such as digestion, nutrient
transportation, waste excretion and temperature regulation.
One of the most important properties
of water in nutrition is its remarkable ability to dissolve substances. It is
said that this property is due to its dielectric constant, which in turn is due
to its hydrogen bonding. (Lassister and Hardy, 1982).
2.5.6 PRE – WEANING PERFORMANCE OF RABBIT
Studies in pre – weaning growth performance is
important since in breeding all stages of growth are inter - related and cannot
be viewed as isolated traits. Osinowo et
al., (1993), noted that pre-weaning performance traits such as weight gain
till weaning, weaning rate and weaning weight influenced herd productivity. McNitt
and Moody (1988) and Lukefahr et al., (1990),
identified pre – weaning variables as major factors affecting post – weaning
performance of rabbits. This means that improvement of economic traits at pre –
weaning stage, could lead to better weaning and post – weaning performance of
rabbits. McNitt and Lukefahr (1993)
suggested that heavy weaving weight is important as it could lead to attainment
of market weight at an early age. Therefore consideration of pre – weaning
performance of the domestic rabbits in the humid tropics is important for their
genetic improvement for better future performances particularly for the
commercial meat type rabbit. Information on pre – weaning differences in terms
of growth trails of rabbits rarer in the tropics mostly in Nigeria is scant in
literature. Research interest has majorly been on pre – weaning litter traits.
This investigation was, therefore, aimed at evaluating, the relationship
between weaning, litter size, pre – weaning and post – weaning body weight of
the domestic rabbit such a study will lend tips towards developing efficient
breeding programmes for breeding heavier and early maturing rabbits, more so in
Nigeria where little effort towards a planned breeding programme for genetic
improvement of the domestic rabbit has been made
According to Obike and Ibe (2010) in
the result of an experiment conducted, between Chinchilla x Chinchilla and New
Zealand white, Chinchilla showed superior genotype in the pre – weaning growth
performance compared to the New Zealand white. This corroborates the result of
Chineke et al (2000) who reported
superior performance of Zealand white x Zealand white over others, including
Chinchilla x Chinchilla in body weight and all linear body parameters studied.
Prayaga
and Eady (2002) reported significantly better individual weight performance of
Zealand white and Flemish Giant pure bred over Californian crossbreds. However,
the observed superiority of purebreds over crossbreds in the study is contrary
to the observations of Odubote and Somade (1992) and Chineke et al., (2002) that pre-weaning growth
characteristics of crossbred’s rabbits were significantly higher than those of
purebreds. These authors attributed the higher performance of crossbreds to
heterosis, indicative of preponderance of non-additive genes for these growth
traits. The observed superiority of purebreds over crossbreds according to
Obike and Ibe (2010) may be due to low number of genotypes used in their study.
On the other hand, it could suggest a preponderance of additive genes for the
pre-weaning growth traits since no selection had been carried out in the
population from which the experimental animals were taken. With this
observation made, the genetic relationship among these populations in terms of
these growth traits could be studied.
Lukefahr (1987), observed that
growth parameters are highly heritable traits, suggesting that differences
among different genotype are expected and selection based on individual
performance could successfully improve these traits. Factors causing variation
in growth rates of rabbits have been reported to include breed and nutrition
(Balogun and Ekukude, 1991). Dutch is a small breed (Fielding, 1991) compared
to Chinchilla and Zealand white. Thus, breed might have accounted for
differences in body weight and linear body traits observed among the purebred
genotypes, CHIN x CHIN, NZW X NZW and DUT x DUT.
The
New Zealand white rabbit has been noted for as a dam breed based on its
outstanding maternal genetic merits for litter size, milking and general
maternal ability (Lebas et al 1997;
McNitt et al, 2000). Okorie (1983)
earlier reported that Chinchilla breed of rabbit is characterized by fast
growth rate and good mothering ability and is therefore used extensively for
breed. The implication of this is that Chinchilla and New Zealand white breeds
of rabbits have high milk yielding capacity for maintenance of their kits and
the genetic potential to transmit desirable genes for fast growth rate. This is
important in making fast genetic progress when considering growth trails.
Obike and Ibe (2010), concluded in
their study, that the performance of Chinchilla is better compared to the other
genotype in terms of pre-weaning growth traits, followed by New Zealand white.
Therefore the two genotypes could be considered as choice genotype for
improvement of rabbits in this region.
2.5.7 LITTER SIZE AND BODY WEIGHT OF
RABBIT
Litter size and body weight of rabbit is the most
Important economic character in rabbit production (Abou-Khadiga 2004 and Notal et al., 2005). Diversity of rabbit
breeds offer opportunity to increase the efficiency of commercial meat
production through crossing (Piles et al.,
2004). Weaning mortality percentage of kit rabbits is vital, importance in
commercial rabbit farming, where it plays a major role in determining the net financial
income of the farms (Rashwan and Marai, 2000). With the increase of Litter size
and decrease of mortality, income becomes more elevated (Szendro et al., 1996). Litter weight at weaning
is controlled by the number of kits
survived at weaning (Risam et al.,
2005) California rabbits are heavy and their litter growths make. It is a good
meat rabbit and can be exploited especially in crossbreeding (Lebas et al., 1986).
Ayyat et
al., (1996), reported that addition of probiotic lacto-sacc to the normal
protein diet (18.4%) of New Zealand white does rabbits, increased litter size
and weight, pre-weaning litter survival rate doe milk yield. In offspring’s,
post-weaning growth showed positive response with normal protein (16.3%) diet supplemented with 0.1%
Lacto-sacc. According to Ozimba and Lukefahr (1996) litter size was anticipated
to an important source of explained variation within breed type, which
otherwise would have existed, in part as among - litter residual variation.
Hassanien and Baiomy (2011) reported that breed had significant effect on litter weight at
birth, at 14 day and at 28 days (at weaning) This indicates that the highest
values of litter weight at birth were recorded for Baladi
Red (368+27g) followed by California(364+22g).
while the values of litter weight at for Rex and New Zealand white where 357+ 25g and 351 + 25g respectively. The
highest values of litter weight at 14days recorded for California(1525+
49g) followed by Newzealand white (1494 + 63g) while those for Rex and
Baladi Red (1450+69g and 1426 +57g) respectively. The lowest
values of litter weight at weaning were recorded for Rex (2057+16g),
(Hassanien and Baiomy, 2011).
Generally, California breed
showed highest litter weight at birth
at 14 days and at weaning Hassanien and Baiomy 2011). These results agreed with
those obtained by Seleem (2005). Litter
weight of California results were similar to those of Prayaga and Eady (2002)
and Reddy et al., (2003).
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS
AND METHOD
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL
SITE/DURATION:
This study was conducted at the Rabbitry Unit of the Teaching
and Research Farm in the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture
and Natural Resources Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki. The
experiment lasted for 8 weeks.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL
ANIMALS AND PROCEDURE:
18 in-does mixed breed were selected
from the population of does’ at the rabbitry unit and allocated into individual
breeding cages. Six Dutch, six Chinchilla and six Newzealand white were used. The
in-does were monitored from conception till kindling. They were fed ad-libitum with commercial feed (Vital
feed) supplemented with Tridax (Tridax
procumbence) and centrosema (Centrosema pubescence). Strict medication as well as adequate sanitation was
maintained throughout the period of the experiment. The breeds of rabbits for
the experiment are the Newzealand White, Chinchilla and Dutch.
3.3 DATA
COLLECTION:
Litter size and individual litter weight were obtained
immediately after kindling using liver bell sensitive scale with minimum
graduation of 0.01 grams. Using the same weighing scale, bi-weekly body weight
was also measured for 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th
week.
3.4 DATA
ANALYSIS
The data generated were subjected to
analysis of variance (ANOVA) using general linear model (GLM) of SPSS (2009)
version 16.0. Significant mean differences observed were separated to DUNCAN’S Multiple
Range Test. Phenotypic correlation between litter traits and pre weaning weight
were estimated using pooled data from the different breeds. Similarly
regression analysis was carried out to estimate the weaning weight using litter
size and birth weight of rabbits.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT
AND DISCUSSION
Result of the effect of breed type of the litter size,
pre-weaning, weaning weight as well as the Pearson correlation co-efficient.
Table 4.1: Pre-weaning litter trait and body weight
performance of Rabbits
Breed
Parameter
|
(DUCTH)
|
(CHINCHILLA)
|
(NEWZEALAND)
|
P-value
|
Birth
weight
|
46.92
|
48.31
|
43.43
|
0.44
|
mean 2weeks
|
146.29
|
147.82
|
152.63
|
0.88
|
mean
4weeks
|
223.13
|
268.85
|
239.45
|
0.14
|
Mean
6weeks
|
283.48
|
355.29
|
285.49
|
0.13
|
Mean
8weeks
|
440.67b
|
530.64a
|
443.75b
|
0.04
|
Litter
size at birth
|
5.83
|
5.17
|
5.67
|
0.54
|
Litter
size at weaning
|
4.50
|
4.33
|
4.00
|
0.48
|
ab Means on the same row followed by different
superscripts.
BW = Body weight
Unit
of measurements = (g)
There were no significant (p>0.05)
difference in all the parameters except for 8 weeks (weaning age) which shows a
significant difference among the breeds, Chinchilla breeds is observed to have
the highest value (530.64g) at weaning (8 wks). This may be
due
to the greater numeric value (48.31g) obtained of birth weight and all through
the pre-weaning stages. This finding are in agreement with the study of Shokoohmend
et al., (2007) who worked with
Japanese quail and indicated that selection for body weight at early ages had
positive effect on body weight at later ages. Similarly, McNitt and moody
(1988) and Lukefahr et al., (1990)
identified pre-weaning variable as major factor that affects post-weaning
performance of rabbits. This implies that an improved economic traits of
pre-weaning stage, could lead to better weaning weight. This result may also be
attributed to a greater heritable traits in growth parameters of chinchilla as
reported by Lukefahr (1987) since chinchilla breed of rabbit is characterized
by fast growth rate and mothering ability Okorie (1983) the implication of this
is that chinchilla breed of rabbit have high milk yielding capacity for maintenance
of their kits and the genetic potential to transmit desirable genes for fast
growth rate. However the birth weight
(43.43-46.92g) obtained from this findings does not agree with Poigner et al., (2000), who reported that
individual birth weight is about 60-70g but can also range from 35 -40g and
80-90g which may be determined by litter size.
There were no significant
(P>0.05) difference in the litter sizes at birth and weaning respectively.
But numerically, Dutch (5.83g) is better of than New Zealand (5:67g) and
chinchilla (5.17g) Whereas, in the litter size at weaning Dutch (4.50g) and
Chinchilla (4.33g) had a higher value as against Newzealand white (4.00g). This
implies that greater mortality was recorded for both Dutch and Newzealand white
as compared to chinchilla. The lower rate of mortality observed in chinchilla
may be attributed to its high milk yielding and good mothering ability which
may have boosted the survival rate of the kits. This confirms the observation
made by Okorie (1983).
Table 4.2: Pearson correlation
co-efficient between the litter traits and body weight at different ages
BWB
|
2wks
|
4wks
|
6wks
|
8wks
|
Litter
Size at birth
|
Litter
Size at weaning
|
|
Body
wt
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
2wks
|
0.29
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
4wks
|
0.25
|
0.531*
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
6wks
|
0.92
|
0.381*
|
0.893**
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
8wks
(weaning)
|
0.26
|
0.481
|
0.095**
|
0.938**
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Littersize
at birth
|
-0.20
|
0.31
|
0.146
|
0.30
|
0.0113
|
-
|
-
|
Littersize
at weaning
|
0.25
|
0.437
|
0.276
|
0.28
|
0.28
|
0.525*
|
-
|
*Correction
is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**
Correction is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The
Pearson correlation co-efficient of Birth pre- weaning body weights, litter
size at birth and at weaning of rabbits. Body weight at 2nd(0.531*)
6th(0.381*) week shows a positive (p<0.05) correlation co-efficient.
A very high positive (p<0.01) correlation co-efficient in weaning weight
(0.095** and 0.938**) was recorded. The litter size at weaning also showed a
positive (p<0.05) correlation co-efficient of 0.525**.
Table 4.3: Regression Coefficient for Litter Size And Birth Weight of Rabbit.
Model
1
|
Un-standardized
coefficient
|
Standard
coefficient
|
|||||||
B
|
Std-error
|
Beta
|
R
|
R2
|
T
|
Sig
|
95%
confidence intervals
|
||
Lower
bound
|
Upper
bound
|
||||||||
Constant
|
253.807
|
180.049
|
0.305a
|
0.093
|
1.410
|
0.179ns
|
|||
Litter
size at birth
|
12.097
|
17.922
|
0.169
|
0.305a
|
0.093
|
0.675
|
0.510ns
|
5.038
|
|
Weight
at birth
|
3.258
|
2.830
|
0.289
|
1.51
|
2.2801
|
1.151
|
0.268ns
|
42.94
|
49.50
|
Significant
(P>0.05)
|
|||||||||
Regression
equation (weaning = 253.887+12.09(Litter size birth) + 3.258(weight at birth).
The regression analysis for litter
size at birth and birth weight (table 3) shows no significant (P>0.05)
difference and had a low coefficient of determination (R) which is 0.305a,
for the litter size at birth and birth weight. This indicates that the
prediction equation obtained in this study may not be effective in predicting
the litter size at birth weight at birth and weaning (8wks) weights for the
breeds of rabbit. This equation disagrees with the models established by
Adenowo and Omoniyi (2004), and Adeleke et
al., 2004).
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
Rabbit rearing has several unique advantages over
other farm species including poultry, ruminants and pigs (Berepubo, 1994).
These advantages are;
The undue emphasis on poultry, ruminants pig and other
so-called “conventional” livestock to produce the much needed animal protein
for the teeming populace has not yielded expected dividends. In each case, the
constraints have been either prohibitive feed and input costs or a relatively
slow production cycle. On the contrary, rabbits are very prolific (producing at
least 4-5 litters per year of 6-8 kittens/litter under the traditional
management system). Also, the cost of housing, equipment and feeding is
relatively low.
Rabbit
do not compete with man completely for scarce grains; they could rely solely or
largely on rich forages and kitchen waste to satisfy their basic nutritional
needs,
The
delicious rabbit meat (Lagomeat) is much lower in fat/cholesterol content as
reported by Berepubo (1994), but much
higher in good quality protein than most other known meat.
Rabbit
pelts (ie, their preserved skins with the fur on) are used in the manufacture
of small valuables like ladies purses, table mats, hand bags and bed-room
slippers.
The
Breed performance is one the major factors farmers should consider in
establishing rabbit industry. In this study, the performance of Chinchilla
breed of rabbit gave the best results in terms of birth weight, weaning as
against that of Newzealand white and Dutch. The improvement and sustainability
of rabbit production in this part of the country will depend on how best
selection is made as regards to choice of genotypes and how well the breeding
programme is planned. Breeders need to exploit population to bring about
improvement in the growth traits. The impact on the animal protein production
and consumption of the citizenry will justify the effort. However, further
investigation is required for the study with larger numbers or rabbits. With
larger mating population and possible higher parities and resulting progeny, it
can be argued that more significance could be found.
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REGRESSION
MODEL SUMMARY
Model
|
R
|
R square
|
Adjusted
R Square
|
Std. Error of the estimate
|
1
|
0.3059
|
0.093
|
-0.028
|
75.4868
|
a. Predictors:
(constant), WT@BRT, LITASIZ@BRT
ANOVA
Model
|
Sum of
Squares
|
Degree of freedom
|
Mean
Square
|
Freedom
|
Significance
|
||||
Regression
|
8755.968
|
2
|
4377.984
|
0.768
|
0.4819
|
||||
Residual
|
85473.865
|
15
|
5698.258
|
||||||
Total
|
94229.833
|
17
|
|||||||
a. Predictor:
(constant), WT@BRT, LITASIZ@B, LITASIZ@B
b. Dependent
Variable: EightWk WT
COEFFICIENTS
|
|||||||||
Model
|
Unstandardized
Coefficients
|
Standardized
coefficients
|
|||||||
B Std. Error
|
Std. error
|
Beta
|
T
|
Sig
|
|||||
1. (constant)
litasiz@birth wt@birth
|
253.887
|
180.49
|
1.410
|
0.179
|
|||||
12.097
|
17.922
|
0.169
|
0.675
|
0.510
|
|||||
3.258
|
2.830
|
0.289
|
1.151
|
0.268
|
|||||
1.
Dependent variable: Eightwk wt
Regression Equation
Weaning
Eightwk wt(weaning weight) = 253.887 + 12.097 (Litasiz@birth + 3.258 (wt @
birth)