THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum
can be defined as:
-
a work schedule
-
Particular body
of courses
-
Total programmers
in the school
-
Body of
experience that lies between objectives and teaching methods.
Curriculum
consists of all those experiences of the child which the school in any way
utilizes or attempts to influence. Curriculum is all the learning experiences
that children have under the direction of the school.
Various Types of Curriculum Decision
The three organizations of
curriculum are:
1. The subject curriculum
2. The activity curriculum
3. The core curriculum
SUBJECT CURRICULUM:
It is a curriculum which is
organized subject by subject, one topic after the other without mixture. May be
taught in complete isolation from another.
Essential
characteristics of subject curriculum:
(a)
There is a
pattern of required of elective course planned in advance.
(b)
The constant
subjects constitute the grater part of the common learnings or general education
programmes.
(c)
Requirement of
subjects, does not mean identical experiences for all students, there is room
for industrial differences.
(d)
Individual
differences interest and ability are met by elective curses and special
programme
(e)
Subject
curriculum may or may not be given deliberate social directions since emphasis
is laid on mastery of the subject.
Advantages of Subject Curriculum
(a)
It constitutes
logical and effective method of organizing learning and of interpreting and
synthesizing new knowledge.
(b)
It is most
appropriate for developing the intellectual power o the individuals.
(c)
It is backed by
long tradition and widely accepted.
(d)
It is more
readily used by present day teachers
(e)
It is easier and
simpler in curriculum planning
(f)
Evaluation of
educational process is readily carried out in it.
Disadvantage of Criticisms
(a)
The subject
organization fragments learning, which may not be useful in actual life
situation.
(b)
It ignores the
interest and the activities of the learner since the instruction must be directed
to the mastery of the subject.
(c)
It has been
criticized as an inefficient arrangement of content for learning and use.
(d)
It is divorced
from current and persistent. Social problems.
(e)
It fails to
develop habits of effective thinking.
A Core Curriculum
The term core curriculum designates
a plan for organizing and scheduling the programme of general education in the
school.
Characteristics of Core
Curriculum
(a)
Core curriculum
emphasis on social values.
(b)
The structure of
core curriculum is fixed by broad social problems or by theme of social living.
(c)
The ore area are
required by all students, since it is general knowledge
(d)
It is organized
on the basis of broad units of work.
(e)
Problem solving
is the dominant method of learning.
(f)
The core
curriculum teacher utilizes much more flexible, freer instructional method.
(g)
There is
provision of special needs and interest as they arise.
(h)
Skills are taught
as need arises.
(i)
It has variety of
learning experiences.
(j)
Guidance of the
best sort is an essential part of the activities of core teachers.
Advantages of Core Curriculum
(a)
It attempts to
relate to program of life problem and students interest.
(b)
It focuses on
problem which are real and have meaning for the students.
Disadvantages of Core Curriculum
(a)
It fails to offer
significant and systematic knowledge
(b)
Materials which
are adequate to the scope are scare
(c)
Much of the
materials used lack intellectual challenge and perspective.
(d)
The cross-cut of
the current subject division is hard to come by.
Activity Curriculum:
It is more pertinent to the
elementary school and is also called experience curriculum.
Characteristics of Activity
Curriculum
(a)
The primary
principle is that the interests and purposes of children determine the
educational programme.
(b)
Common learnings
resulting from the pursuance of common interests since child interest is the
first delimiting factor in determining what to teach.
(c)
The activity
curriculum is not planned in advance since the child’s interest provide the
starting point.
(d)
Problem solving
is the dominant method of learning.
(e)
Activities are
planned cooperatively by students and the teachers.
(f)
Children
individuals needs and interests are meet within the programme.
(g)
Special subjects
provide for specialized interest.
(h)
The curriculum
may or may not have deliberate social direction.
Advantages of Activity
Curriculum:
(a)
Children are
always engaged because it is activity oriented
(b)
It counteracts
the passivity and sterility of learning.
(c)
It takes into
account the needs and interest of children.
Disadvantages of Activity
Curriculum
(a)
Interest
categories sacrifice the subject organization of knowledge and do not replace
it with any organizations.
(b)
There is an
apparent lack of continuity of experience
(c)
A curriculum
based primarily upon interest does not provide adequate preparation for the
future.
Broad –field type of Curriculum
It seeks rather to bring together
into a broad organization of subject matter, the knowledge and understanding
pertinent to a whole area of study. It represents an effort to fuse and
integrate, the subject matter of closely related discipline or school subject
e.g. general science and social studies.
Advantage of the Broad –field
Curriculum
(a)
Integration of
subject matter is facilitated by Broad-field approach.
(b)
The organization
provides for a more functional organization of knowledge.
(c)
It places
emphasis on basic principle and generalizations rather than on information and
facts.
(d)
It has advantage
of well developed materials and accepted method of instruction
(e)
It enjoys more
public support especially at secondary school level.
Disadvantages or Criticisms of
Broad-field Curriculum
(a)
Broad-field
approach provides only a sketchy knowledge of a subject area.
(b)
The broad-field
type of course does not enable the learner to grasp the inherent logic of
subject matter.
General Principles of Curriculum
Development
Health education curriculum
development is not unlike curriculum development in other disciplines, the
following general principles will be helpful in health education curriculum
development programme.
1.
Education
involves preparation for adult life. Prominent among those essential skills are
reading, simple arithmetic, oral and written expression, and elements of the
scientific approach to problem solving.
2.
The success of
curriculum development project is
related to the number and variety of people involved in the project.
Participation is the second principle fundamental to curriculum development.
Simply stated in order for curriculum development. To make the optimum contribution
to the school programme, the greatest possible number of individuals must be
involved. The experience of participating in the curriculum development process
is as important as the resulting product, the curriculum guide.
3.
The curriculum
must reflect the value system of the community. It is important to note that
the curriculum consists of planned educative experiences and not everything
that happens to a student.
4.
The curriculum
must reflect the value system of the community. Curriculum development that
runs counter to the value system of the community is doomed to failure. It must
be recognized that no one develops a set of values completely independent of
the environment, particularly in early childhood.
5.
The progress in
education is made slowly. in light of experience, it must be recognized that
large scale curriculum reform will come about slowly, but individual school and
school system need to be discouraged from undertaking innovations in their
curriculum development.
Principles with Special Application
to Health Education
In developing the health education
curriculum, it is important to consider each of the general principles outlined
above. In addition, it is important to consider specific principles with direct
application to health education. These
principles might be thought of as principles of health education, and as such
they serve as guiding rules in the development of the health education
curriculum.
1. Learning
is an inherent drive: Children are born to learn: knowledge, attitudes, and
practices (habits and skills). Given a normally healthful climate, they grow in
physical stature, emotional maturity, the use of social skills and spiritual
well-being.
2. positive example promotes the
development of health practices. The family is the social unit that exerts the
most direct and profound influence on children. The intimate contacts and
shared experiences mitigate in the direction of accepted attitudes and
practices. Health attitude are passed on by parents to their children, partly
intentionally, partly through their examples, and partly in various subtle and
imperceptible ways of which they nor the children are aware.
3. Early childhood learning tend to
persist. The school enters the development sense so late in the life of the
child that remedial education becomes its principal task. Thus the school must
foster unlearning as part of the learning process. A long range goal of health
education should be the establishment of desirable health practices in infancy
and early childhood. Since this goal can only be accomplished by the parents,
it becomes necessary for the schools to focus on preparation for parenthood and
to include programs of education of parents and prospective parents. Throughout
all phases of education it must be recognized that health practices are well
established in early life.
4. Thorndike’s Principles of learning:
readiness, exercise, and effect apply in health education. In simple terms the
principle of readiness recognized that there is a psychologically opportune
time for a particular learning: when the individuals feels a need to know or to
the principle of exercise recognizes that learning are strengthened through
exercise or repetition. It should be emphasized that undesirable learning are
acquired in the same manner as are desirable ones. We learn by doing. The
principle of effect recognizes that the act tends to be repeated when and if
the experience is pleasant, but not that pleasant experiences are remembered
better.
5. A favourable Environment Promotes
Learning: Five specific considerations for the teacher
1. to provide a fovrouable physical
environment
2. to foster a favourable emotional
environment
3. To
inform, that is to present new facts and ideas not otherwise available to the
learners.
4. to
inspire motivate; and
5. to
inspire or explain. If a capable teacher focuses on these functions the result
will very likely be an environment that encourages learning.
6. Reinforcement
is conducive to positive learning. Positive reinforcement is usually most
effective, but there are times for negative reinforcement. Such negative
reinforcement need not be in the form of punishment. It may, infact be the
simple removal of a support such as keeping forbidden objects and of sight of young
children.
7. The
perception of the individual influences learning. This means that people react
to their perception of what they hear or see and not to what is said or done.
Perception may depend on the interpretation or understanding of words or it may
arise on cultural differences; for example, in some cultures, milk is not
palable because the cow is sacred, whereas the use of powdered milk might be
acceptable. It is especially important that teachers determine how the learner
perceives an experiences.
8. Health
learning may not be immediately applicable and may not result in an immediate
change in behaviour. That is that there may be considerable delay between
learning and application. This fact is especially true of the learning related
to the recognition of disease, to long time effects of diet and of stress and
to the health needs related to child bearing and child caring.
Constructing
the Guide
In considering the total program, a format such as the
following might be employed:
i.
title of guide
ii.
introduction
iii.
Philosophy of
health education, health education defined why health education?
iv.
Health education
programme aims: long-range goals, objectives, behavioural objectives or
competencies by goals level. Concepts by grade level.
v.
Program content:
time allotments, broad layout plan –elementary, broad layout plan secondary,
elementary, learning activities, resource aid and materials
vi.
Evaluation in
health education: elementary, secondary
vii.
Selected
references, for students by level, for teachers by level.
ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM OF HEALTH
EDUCATION
Administrative
structure and health science instruction
The administration of health science instruction
varies with each educational system. In some schools and colleges it is placed
in such areas as physical education, science and home economics. In other
schools and colleges it is a separate area by itself. Most often health is
administratively located in the health and physical education department. In
the larger schools especially, and in colleges and universities, there may be a
separate health education department with full-time personnel who have been
trained in the area of health education. Such an administrative arrangement is
conducive to good interrelationships between the school and college and public
health agencies, to the development of a health council, and to a
well-coordinate and well-integrated health program. In smaller and medium-sized
schools and colleges, there should also be full-time health educators charged
with this important responsibility,
The physical education person may
times is assigned such responsibilities as coaching, intramurals, and special
events in addition to physical education classes. If the responsibility for
health education is given to a teacher of physical education, in addition to
these numerous other duties, some responsibility is going to suffer. In many
causes, with pressure for winning teams and successful intramural programs, the
class instruction program is neglected. School and college administration
should the curriculum. It should be assigned only to qualified persons and
should receive ample time and facilities to make it effective.
Every school and college, regardless
of size, should have someone on its staff assigned to coordinate the various aspects
of the health program. In larger schools and colleges this might be a full-time
position. In smaller ones it could be the principal, chairman of the health
department, or some qualified and interested staff member.
The administration of the health
education program should also include a health council or committee. Such a
group of individuals, regardless of type of size of school, can play an
important part in planning and carrying out the health education on program.
Developing a health education Curriculum:
The curriculum commission of the
School Health Division of AAHPER has proposed a guide for developing a health
curriculum that will meet the needs of individuals associated with schools. The
guide was developed by curriculum directors and others responsible for health
curriculum development.
The guide proposes certain steps to
be taken in developing a curriculum.
Preplanning:
In order for a program to succeed, it must have community support as well as
support form the administration and staff. A written policy should include
reference to funds, time allocations, class space, and instructional materials.
Two committees should be formed. The
first would be an in-school steering committee, consisting of representation
from the students, teachers, administrators, parents, school nurses, and
special interest or ethnic groups. A second or advisory committee would be
out-of-school and consist f community personnel (counselors, lawyers, doctors,
health specialist, and others) and representatives form the PTA and other
organizations.
The basic considerations necessary
in the development of any curriculum include:
(1)
meeting all state
and local requirements;
(2)
identifying
behavioural objectives
(3)
meeting the needs
of community members, students, and specific community requirements;
(4)
developing a
health education philosophy;
(5)
Considering
controversial areas;
(6)
Developing a work
schedule; and
(7)
Exploring full
all sources of funding
Program The
status of the present health education program should be evaluated in terms of
pupil knowledge and behavioural objective standards as well as staff, policies,
budget, and facilities. The conclusions and recommendations should be
thoroughly discussed and evaluated.
Broad content areas: content areas
should be based on student needs and opinions of the steering and advisory
committees. In addition, student health records and absences might also be
evaluated.
Format:
The format of the curriculum guide should include the specific content area,
behavioural or instructional objectives, concepts, student learning
experiences, student and teacher resources, and evaluation techniques for
students and teachers.
Field
Testing: Field testing should be conducted at a variety of levels. Both novice
and experienced teachers should be used as well as all types of students;
rural, urban, and disadvantaged. Changes should be made where indicated.
Implementation: The plan for implementation should be specific in
terms of target date and schedule. Administration approval should be included.
Re-Evaluation:
All programs should be re-evaluated every 3 to 5 years. Students ‘ needs change
over a period of years, and the curriculum must also change to meet these
needs.
Content areas for the health science
instruction program
There is considerable knowledge and
information that may be taught in health education. With all the literature
that is available in such forms as textbooks, resource books, pamphlets, and
promotional materials, it is important that content be selected with care.
Some basic principles for selecting
curriculum experiences in the health science instruction program follow:
1. The content of health science
instruction on should be based on the needs and interests of the students.
Developmental characteristics of children and youth
and psychologic needs of students, such as security, approval success in
athletics, appearance, and peer group approval, are considerations in relating
teaching to the interests of students.
2. The problems and topics covered must be
appropriate to the maturity level of the students.
3. The materials used should be current
and scientifically materials and experiences should be provided.
4. Pupils should be able to identify with
the health problems should be geared to or related to the daily living
experiences of the student body.
5. Health should be recognized as a
multidisciplinary subject, and, as such, subject matter projects, and methods
of teaching should take cognizance of the new developments. In the related
sciences.
6. Health science instruction should be
taught in light of a rapidly changing society and knowledge of new ways of
affecting the behaviour of human beings.
7. Health teaching should take place in a
healthful psychologic and physicalen environment.
8. To be most effective, the health
teacher must exemplify good health and be well informed, happy, and
successful
9. The basic concepts in health should be
identified and taught.
10. The new technologic methods, and aids
should be used to improve visual presentations of health materials to students.
11. Students’ previous health experiences
should be considered.
12. Planning for health science instruction
should be a total school or college endeavour, with students, teachers,
especialists, and consultants participating. Furthermore, health instruction
should permeate the entire school or college curriculum.
13. Objectives of the school or college
health program, including knowledge, attitudes, practices, and skills, need to
be reviewed and the program planned intelligently and meaningfully in light of
these goals.
14. The community should be involved in
health science instruction, including personnel form the public health
department, voluntary health associations, medical and dental professions, and
other health associations and agencies.
15. School health science instruction should
be closely integrated with home conditions.
16. New methods of organizing for teaching,
including the non-graded school, team teaching, individualized instruction, and
programmed instruction, should be considered.
17. Constant research and evaluation of the
program should take place.
18. Health instruction in general should
share the same prestige and respect in the eyes of school or college
administrators, teachers, and students as other respected school or college
offerings, with time allotments and other considerations receiving equal
attention.
Sex education, drugs, and other
critical content areas in health science instruction:
The question often arises as to
whether such critical subjects as sex, narcotics, and alcohol education should
be included in the health science instruction program. The fact that some of
these problems are more pronounced in certain communities, and possibly
restricted to some population groups, and the fact that such education might
tend to stimulate curiosity are reasons put forth for not including them in courses
of study.
On the other-hand, instruction in
regard to the ill effects of narcotics and alcohol is required by law in many
states. Furthermore, it is felt that if children and youth are provided with
the facts, intelligent instruction in these subjects will act as a preventive
measure. In the area of sex education, it is believed that the term sex
education creates opposition among many parents and church groups and
consequently should not be used. If it is introduced in the natural process of
instruction without undue emphasis, much good can be done.
The nature of the instruction will
depend on the local situation. Where a narcotics or alcohol problem exists,
there should be provision in the school curriculum for the presentation of
sociologic, physiologic, and psychologic students should understand these facts
and be guided intelligently in making the right decisions and establishing a
sound standard of values.
Health education is not the only
area in which discussions of sex, narcotics, and alcohol should take place.
Social studies, biology, general science, physical education, and other classes
also have a responsibility. Many phases of these subjects logically fit into
certain aspects of these courses.
Teachers must appreciate the
importance of such instruction and the need for treating these subjects
objectively on the basis of the facts. It is not necessary for the teacher to
take a definite stand on the subject. Instead, if students obtain the necessary
facts through research or some other method and then interpret them
intelligently, the right answers will be clear. The students make their own
decisions, not on the basis of the teacher’s position but on the basis of the
facts they have collected.
In regard to sex education, the
emphasis should be on the psychologic and sociologic aspects rather than only
on the biologic aspects. The goal is to have students recognize what is
desirable behaviour and what constitutes a healthy sexuality rather than only
to gain knowledge of reproductive organs. Sex education should not be a
separate course but should be included and discussed in every course where its
various aspects arise during regular discussions. Parents and representative
community groups should be consulted and asked to participate in any
discussions relative to the planning for instruction in this area. It is
important to have well-trained and qualified teachers handling such instruction.
If the right leadership is provided, the result can be beneficial to all
concerned, but if poor leadership exists, results can be harmful.
Health science instruction at the
preschool and elementary school levels:
The committee on health education
for pre-school children of the American school health association lists the
following as a topical outline of content for pre-school children.
·
Cleanliness and
grooming
·
Dental health
·
Eyes, ears, nose
·
Rest and sleep
·
Nutrition
·
Growth and
development
·
Family living
·
Understanding
ourselves and getting along
·
Prevention and
control of disease
·
Safety
For each of these topics the committee has identified
key concepts, suggested learning experience, and means of evaluation.
Health education at the elementary level is aimed
primarily at having the child develop good health habits and health attitudes,
and at helping him or her live happily, healthfully, and safely. This is
achieved in great measure by adapting good health practices to the regular
routine of school and home living, rather than by dispensing facts concerning
health. The responsibility for the guidance, planning, and stimulation of good
health practices and attitudes falls on the classroom teacher. He or she is the
guiding influence, and his or her understanding of good health will determine
to a great degree the effectiveness of such a program.
The type of health program offered should be adapted
to the child’s level of understanding and planned in accordance with his or her
interests and needs. Health education is a continuous process and cannot be
compartmentalized within a definite subject that are part of the child’s life.
At the primary grade level the emphasis should be made
more on the child and his or her daily routine as it is affected by certain
health practices and attitudes. The child’s various routines and associations
at school and at home form the basis fro the health emphasis. The importance of
a healthful classroom environment is stressed. Such items as cleanliness,
seating, use of lavatories, safety, and good mental hygiene are brought out as
the child plays, eats, and shares experiences that are common to all
youngsters.
The committee on health education for Elementary
School Children of the American school health Association lists the following
as a topical outline of content for this age group.
·
Grades 1, 2, and
3
·
Cleanliness and
grooming
·
Rest and exercise
Growth, posture, role of physician and dentist,
individual responsibility for one’s health. Responsibility for the health of
others. Dental health. Vision and hearing. Babies, nutrition, making new
friends, being alone sometimes family time, protection from infection, food
protection, safety.
Grades
4, 5, and 6
Health
care, cleanliness and grooming, vision and care of eyes, hearing and care of
ears, heart, teeth exercise, rest, and sleep nutrition, growth and development,
family living, understanding ourselves, getting along with others, making
decision, environmental health, prevention and
control diseases, safety and first aid.
For
each of these topics the committee has identified key concepts, suggested
learning experiences, and means of evaluation.
In the upper elementary years a
planned progression in instruction is developed. Although there is still stress
on the actual practices and attitudes concerned with the daily routines and
associations, more factual information is incorporated to form the basic for
such habits.
Furthermore, more and more
responsibility is placed on the child for his or her own self-control.
Trips and textbooks that point up
the value of healthful living and include interesting and inspiring stories,
visual aids, class discussions, and projects will leave their impression on the
child’s thinking.
Because health experiences should be
based on the needs and interests of the child, the wise teacher will use
various means to obtain accurate information about these needs and interests.
Such techniques as talks with parents and pupils, observations, of children
under various situations, a perusal of health records, a study of the home
environment and community together with scientific measuring devices that have
been developed to determine health suggestions for the classroom teacher. The
classroom teacher is the key school person involved in the health of the
elementary school child. The organization of the school with the self-contained
classroom enables him or her to continually observe the pupils and to note
deviations form normal. Continuous contract with the same children over a long
period of time also makes it possible to know a great deal about their
physical, social, emotional, and the teacher can help them develop the right
knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Some of the responsibilities of the classroom
teacher in regard to the health of the pupils are to.
1.
Possess an
understanding of what contributes a well-rounded school health program and the
teacher’s part in it.
2.
Meet with the
school physician, nurse, and others to determine how he or she can best
contribute to the total health program.
3.
Become acquainted
with parents and homes of students and establish parent-school cooperation.
4.
Discover the
health needs and interests of his or her pupils.
5.
Organize health
teaching units that are meaningful in terms of the health needs and interests
of his or her students.
6.
See that children
heading special care are referred to proper places for help.
7.
Know first aid
procedures.
8.
Participate in
the work of the school health council. If none exists, interpret the need of
one.
9.
Provide an
environment for children while at school that is conducive to healthful living.
10. Continually be on the alert for children with
deviations form normal behaviour and signs of communicable diseases.
11. Provide experiences at school for healthful living
12. Help pupils assume an increasing responsibility for
their own health as well as for the health of others.
13. Set an example of healthful living for the child
14. Motivate the child to be well and happy
15. Be present at health examinations of pupils and
contribute in any way helpful to the physician in charge.
16. Follow through in cooperation with the nurse to see
that remediable health defects are corrected.
17. Interpret the school health program to the community
and enlist its support in solving health problems.
18. Provide a well-rounded class physical education
program.
19. Help supervise various activities that directly affect
health-school lunch, rest periods.
20. Become familiar with teaching aids and school and
community resources for enhancing the health program
21. Be aware of the individual differences of pupils
Health Science Instruction at the
secondary school level
The structural organization of the
secondary school level differs from that of the elementary level. At the
elementary level, the classroom teacher frequently takes overall charge of a
group of children. He or she teaches them throughout the entire day and
supervises their activities. At the secondary level, the student has many
different who specialize in subject matter to a greater degree than they
specialize in pupils. Departmentalization into such subject areas as
mathematics, social studies, and English affects health education.
First, this structural organization
points up the need for concentrated courses in health education, such as those
found in the other subject areas.
Second, it emphasizes the need for a
specialist in the teaching of health education. Just as specialists are needed
in English and the other sects offered at the secondary level, so are they
needed in the field of health education. The body of scientific. Knowledge, the
training needed, and the importance of the subject make such a specialist a
necessity.
Third, this structural organization
stresses the need for coordination and cooperation. Health outs across many
subject areas, as well as the total school life of the student. In order that
it may be properly treated in the various subject areas such as science, home
economics, and social studies, in order that the physical environment and the
emotional environment may be properly provided for, in order that health
services may be most effectively administered, and in order that close
cooperation and coordination between the school and the rest of the community
may be obtained, there is an essential need for some type of coordinating
machinery, such as a school health council.
The Junior High School: Junior high school students need knowledge and
attitudes that will result in desirable health practices. The fact that
students may not be interested in such information represents a challenge for
the junior high school educational program. The consumption of many sweets as a
substitute for essential foods, omission of breakfast, an interests in personal
grooming, a need to understand one’s bodily make-up, the maturing sexual drive, and other factors
make it imperative to get across health information at this time.
Health content should be adapted to
the needs and interests of the students in this age group. Stress should be on
the personal health problems of the students themselves, how hereditary factors
affect their health, how good or poor health is manifested, and how health
practices affect attainment of life ambitions and goals. Such topics as food,
rest, exercise, first aid, safety, alcohol and narcotics, mental health,
communicable diseases, growth and functions of the human body, personality
development, family life, and community health should be included.
The health teaching in the junior high
school should consider the developmental tasks that characterize the early
adolescent. These include the desire for independence from adults,
self-respect, and peer identification, as well as accepting one’s physical
make-up adjusting to the opposites sex, and establishing values.
The committee on health education
for junior High school of the American School Health Association lists the
following as a topical outline of content for this age group:
1.
health status
2.
Cleanliness and
grooming
3.
rest, sleep, and
relaxation
4.
exercise,
posture, recreation and leisure time activities
5.
sensory
perception, nutrition, growth and development
6.
understanding
ourselves, personality, getting along with others, family living, alcohol,
drugs, smoking and tobacco environment, air and water pollutions, consumer
health
Disease
For each of these topics the
committee has identified key concepts, suggested learning experiences, and
means of evaluation.
The Senior High School: During grades ten, eleven, and twelve, the stress
continues to be on many subject areas that were emphasized for the health
content in the junior high school years. However, the material and experiences
presented should be more advanced and adapted to the age group found in the
later high school years. Such topics as the structure and function of the human
body could stress more scientific concepts as found through research,
evaluation of individual health needs in the light of proper balance in one’s daily
routine, and the means of attaining proper emotional maturity and mental
health.
The committee on health education
for senior high school of the America school health association lists the
following as a topical outline of content for this age group:
Health status, fatigue and sleep,
exercise, recreational activities, sensory perception, nutrition, growth and
development towards maturity, family living, alcohol, drugs, smoking and
tobacco, health protection, noise pollution, health agencies, health careers,
world health, safety and accidents.
For each of these topics the
committee has listed key concepts, suggested learning experiences, and means of
evaluation.
Although personal health receives
considerable attention during the high school years, a major part of the
teaching is concerned with problems of adult and family living and community
health. Such health areas as preparation for marriage and family life,
communicable and non-communicable diseases control, evaluation of professional
health services, environmental health, industrial health, consumer health
education, accident prevention, emergency care, protection from environmental
hazards such as radiation, health agencies at the local, state, national, and
international levels, and the various health careers open to high school
students are included.
Some students will not be going to
college. This means that the senior high school years offer the last
opportunity to impress boys and girls with their health responsibilities to
themselves, their loved ones, and the members of their community.
Health education at the secondary
level can have a lasting effect for the betterment of human lives. The
leadership provided, the methods used, and the stress placed on such an
important aspect of living will determine in great measure the extent to which
each school fulfills its responsibility.
Health science Instruction at the
College and University Level
Years ago the college and university
health education offerings, consisted mainly of lectures on various aspects of
the anatomy and physiology of the human body. These were usually given by
medical personnel and were often a collection of uninteresting facts or
unrelated to the student’s interests and health problem. In more recent years
this type of presentation has changed. The emphasis has shifted from the
factual medical knowledge to health problems that students themselves encounter
in day-to-day living and also to those subjects in which students are
especially interested. Consequently, discussions are now held on subjects
concerned with family living, sex education, personal and community health,
mental health, drugs, environmental health, nutrition, the prevention of
diseases, and related subjects.
A president’s commission on Higher
Education stressed the importance of health instruction for college students.
It particularly stressed instruction based directly on the practical problems
of personal and community health.
The American College Health
Association has recommended that every college and university have a
requirement in health education for all students who fall below acceptable
standards on a college- level health knowledge test.
The junior college is a particularly
strategic position to offer health instruction. The 2-year college reaches a
significant segment of the population that does not go on the 4-year colleges and
universities. Furthermore, research has shown that junior college students have
demonstrated as much as 25% more interest in health problems that high school
students. Junior college students are more mature, and this may be an
explanation of their increased interest in health problems. Topics such as sex instruction, marriage,
mental health, emotional health alcohol, tobacco, and narcotics are of
particular interest to this segment of the college population.
It is generally felt that a health
education department should be established to coordinate the instruction in
health, that student needs should help determine subject content, that only
qualified faculty members be permitted to teach health education classes, and
that classes be limited to a maximum of 35 students. Testing of new students is
also recommended, after which those students who fall below desirable standards
must take the required health education courses.
Presently, health education courses
offered in colleges and universities are listed in college catalogues under
such names as Personal Hygiene, healthful living. Course are taught in such
departments as health, physical education, and recreation; health education;
biology, education; health and safety; basic studies; psychology; and biologic
sciences. Students required to take such courses vary from only those students
in schools of education or in departments of health, physical education, and
recreation, or elementary education major students, to liberal arts students.
In some institutions courses are required for women but not for men.
There is a need for a uniform
requirement for all college students to demonstrate that they know basic facts
in the field of health. Those students who fail to meet such standards should
be required to take a health course, which is basic to the general education,
productivity, and health of each person.
Health education for adults: Adults are the guiding force in any community. Their
prestige, their positions, and their interests determine the extent to which
any project or enterprise will be a success. Therefore, if the schools are to
have an adequate health education program, if the knowledge that is
disseminated, attitudes that are developed, and practices that are encouraged
are to become a permanent part of the child’s being and routine, the adult must
be considered. Unless this is done, the schools’ efforts will be useless.
There is a great need for parental
education and for education in regard to the many health problems that confront
any community. Adults are interested not only in children’s health problems but
also in the causes of sickness and death in the population and ways in which
they can live a heal their life. Adult education is increasing in this country.
It is important that health education be included in any such program.
Schools and colleges should play a
key part in adult education programs because of the facilities, staff, and
other resources at their disposal. They should cooperate fully with the many
official and voluntary health agencies and other interested community groups in
the furtherance of health objectives. Adult health education programme should be
designed to discover community health problems, understand the health needs of
children, and understand school health programs. Such discovery and
understanding should lead to active participation in meeting health needs and
in solving health problems. Such a program would also improve the health
knowledge, attitudes, and practices of adults.
METHODS OF TEACHING HEALTH
1. Lecture, recitation, and assignments in
the textbook represent a limited array or approved techniques for the modern
health class. Although good textbooks are important many other methods can
motivate students and create interest in health topics.
The methods used should be adapted to
the group of students being taught, be in accordance with the objectives
sought, be capable of using by the instructor, stimulate interest among the
students, and be adaptable to the time, space, and equipment in the school
program. Some of the more popular methods for teaching health are discussed in
the following paragraphs.
2. Problems solving is one of the most
effective and best methods for teaching health. Health topics can be stated in
the form of problems, and then the students can use a systematic approach to
obtain and answer. For example, the problem can be stated: “What are the
effects of narcotics on health? A systematic approach to this problem might
include:
1. Stating the nature and scope of the
problem,
2. Defining the various possible solutions
to the problems.
3. Collecting
scientific information to support each of the various aspects of the problem.
4. Analyzing
the information gathered as to its source authoritativeness, date of origin,
and other pertinent factors, and
5. Drawing
conclusions to solves the problems. Textbook assignments may be given, followed
by class discussions based on the readings.
3. Field trips can include planned visits
to an agency or place where health matters are important, such as a hospital,
local health department, water purification plant health clinic, or fire
department.
4. Class discussions on health topics of
interest can be encouraged among the members of the class.
5. Demonstrations are an excellent method
to show how something functions or is constructed, such as good and poor from
of posture or first aid procedures.
6. Experiments; such as observing the
growth of animals when certain types of diet are administered, are informative.
7. Independent study in which the students
are assigned health topics to investigate is helpful.
8. Resource people, such as doctors,
dentists, firemen, or other specialists, can be brought in to speak to health
classes.
9. Audiovisual aids: such as films,
network educational television and cable television, films trips, slides,
radio, and recordings, helps make health material interesting and clear.
10. Graphic materials such as posters,
graphs, charts, bulletin boards, and exhibits are valuable for motivating
students in regard to health matters, arousing interests, attracting attention,
and visualizing ideas.
11. Interviews can be arranged in which
students get views and recommendations of such persons as officers of the local
health department, representatives of safety councils, members of voluntary
health agencies, and heads of medical and dental societies.
12. Panels can be made up of students for an
informal exchange of ideas or viewpoints regarding pertinent health matters.
13. Buzz sessions in which a class is
organized into small groups of students for the purpose of discussing health
topics, permitting each student more opportunity for discussion, is an
excellent method.
14. Class committees can be formed by
dividing a class and assigning topics for exploration.
15. Dramatizations, such as a play or a skit,
can be put on by a class to bring to the pupils’ attention a healthy matter
such as the importance of safety on the playground.
16. Surveys of health problems in the school,
college, or community that need investigating and solving can be suggested,
Survey froms can be constructed by pupils themselves or else standard from may
be available.
17. Games and quizzes patterned after popular
shows on radio or television can provide interesting methods and challenge the
thinking of students.
18. Health aids can be provided in which
community health agencies may offer opportunities for students to obtain
experience by keeping records or engaging in various activities Working on a
Red Cross blood program is an example.
CONCENTRATED, CORRELATED, INTEGRATED,
AND INCIDENTAL HEALTH TEACHING
Four ways of including health
education in the school offering are through concentrated, correlated,
integrated, and incidental teaching.
Concentrated health teaching
Concentrated health education refers
to the provision in the school offering for regularly scheduled courses that
are confined solely to a consideration of health, rather than c combination
with some other subject area. It implies a scheduled time for class meetings,
and a planned course of study. Such courses should be given on the secondary
school level. Furthermore, such courses should be held for a daily class period
at least one semester during the ninth or tenth grade and also during eleventh
or twelfth grade.
Concentrated health education
courses required of all students result in many educational benefits. There is
a specialized bod of knowledge to impart that can best be given to students in
a concentrated manner, rather than by depending on some other subject to
provide this information. It allows for better planning, teaching progression,
and evaluation. It further allows for the giving of credit; add such as is
given for any other course. It is more likely to result in health instruction
by teachers who have specialized in this particular are who are qualified and
interested in participating in such a course. It offers greater opportunities
for discussing personal health problem, for guidance and counseling in regard
to these problems, and for using teaching methods appropriate to such a course.
Correlated health teaching
Correlated health education refers
to the practice of including health concepts in the various subject areas. For
example, in the area of history the relationship of the rise and fall of
various groups of people could be related to their health and the prevalence of
disease, as could the increased speed of transportation and the transfer of
disease from one country to the other. In the area of English, a study of the
works of literature could be selected with a view to pointing up the health
problems of individuals during various period of history. The relationship of
music and of art to mental health could be brought out. Mathematics could be
used as a tool to figure the costs of various health probjects. Science could
bring out the health aspects in relations to the structure and functions of the
human body. Home economics provides an excellent setting for teaching such
topics as nutrition and personal cleanliness. There is hardly a subject area
that cannot be correlated with health education.
Incidental health teaching
Incidental health education refers
to the education that akes place during normal teaching situations, where
attention is focused on problems concerned with health. Such occasions may
arise as the result of a question asked by a student; a problem that is raised
in class; a personal problem that conforms a member of the class, a family, or
the community; or a sudden illness, accident, or special project. It represents
and opportunity for the teacher, physician, dentist, or nurse to provde
educational information. When a student has his or her eyes examined or chest
x-rayed, for example, many questions arise and opportunities ad afforded to
give the student beneficial information. In many cases this will benefit the
health of the child more than information given in more formalized, planned
class situations. Teachers and others should constantly keep in mind the
necessity for continually being alert to these “teachable moments”. When a
child is curious and wants information, this establishes a time for dynamic
health education. Incidental health education can be planned for in advance.
Situations and incidents should be anticipated and utilized to their fullest in
the interests of good health.
Integrated health teaching.
In integrated health teaching,
health learnings are integrated into aspects of the classroom program. Learning
experiences are organized around a central objective. Whereas in correlated
teaching, health is brought into various parts of a unit of study are related
to a central theme. Two such themes might be that of living in a city or
planning a visit to a foreign country. Health is one consideration involved in
the planning, discussion, and assignments concerning this central theme. Health
factors, for example, can be an important consideration in living in a large
metropolitan city or in going to a foreign country. There are problems
concerned with water supply, sewage treatment, fire prevention, disease
control, immunizations, and medical examinations. Integrated health teaching
finds its best setting in the elementary school.
Organization of health classes:
A problem that frequently arises in
connection with the organization of health science is whether boys and girls
should meet together or separately. Where health science instruction is a
combined program with physical education, and where the boys and girls are in
separate classes, it would probably be best to conduct the health classes
separately. On the other hean, if health science and physical education are no
combined, they should be handled in the same manner as any other subject. This
means that there would be mixed groups. The fact that the subject matter is
health science should not mean separation of sexes. Some leaders in the field
maintain this concept is wrong and advocate keeping the sexes separate as a
means o getting better organization.
If boys and girls meet as a mixed
group for health science they should continue as a mixed group throughout the
entire course. It is not wise to have them meet separately when certain topics
are considered. To do so tends to place undue emphasis on certain aspects of
health science. It is best to treat al subjects in a natural and educational
manner.
EVALUATION
Evaluation may be considered an
appraisal, assessment, or measurement in the broadest and most complete sense.
The process of evaluating therefore should be considered along with
measurement. Measurement answers the questions of how much, and how often, it
is concerned wit quantities and qualities in evidence. Evaluation goes beyond
the mechanics of testing and measuring to judgment in the light of aims and
objectives.
Evaluation answers the question of
whether or not a particular experience has value. It is a continuous process.