From
the discussions above this study adopts the Analytic conflict theory.
Specifically Analytic conflict theory explores the social structures and
conditions that affect women or the disadvantaging of women, in all societies ,
which affect them negatively. In this theory, there are explanations based on
why women are oppressed in what they do and this introduces them to health
complications that put them in an unprivileged position and reduces their
well-being. These areas are framed in four levels of; gender difference, gender
inequality; oppression and structural oppression.
In gender difference, it
defines the position of the women; women’s location in, and experience of, most
situations, is different from that of the men in those situations. The natural
division is justified in the name of nature: sex being considered the most
essential difference amongst species. And this often goes under the guise of
culture, culture becomes the excuse for inequality as people use obscure and
ill-defined cultural norms and assert unequal power exhibited by women and men
(Johnson , 1988). This inequality can snowball to an extent where the less
powerful become oppressed, essentially invisible (Johnson, 1988) .In
small-scale quarry mining , power inequalities for poor rural women in the developing countries in
particular can be viewed as, their lack of financial resources to own small
mine enterprises; and then are employed in predominantly manual (mechanically unaided) and back breaking
chores, such as carrying 40-50kg head load or panning in knee-deep crater for
hours. This imbalance of power between women and men is greatest in developing
countries like Nigeria(ILO,2003). It has been widely demonstrated that poverty
accelerates and increases gender inequalities, as small-scale mining
predominates in developing countries attracting under-privileged people; it
follows that this represents a repository of poor people and it can be assumed
that poverty here is associated with extreme forms of gender inequality. This
can be related to the women who work in small-scale quarry mines of the
developing nations, where there are reduced self-actualization being hindered
by their global placement in the rural areas. This explains why local women are
most often in the weakest and poorest circumstances, in traditional cultures,
such as those in the remote regions of underdeveloped nations ( Joan 1990;
Hentschel 2001 ). The second one is that
of gender inequality where women’s location in most situations is not only
different from but also less privileged than or unequal to that of men. On gender oppression, there is a direct power
relationship between men and women through which women are restrained,
subordinated, molded, used and abused by men. And in structural oppression
women’s experience of difference, inequality, and oppression varies according
to their location within; class, race, ethnicity, age, affect ional preference,
marital status, and global location. These levels of women’s subjugation and discrimination
have helped to put the women on the type of work in which they do like quarry
mining which produces other undesirable situations in the society for them.
As had been identified, women and men are
positioned in society not only differently but at the same time unequally. And
in this positioning women get less of the material resources, social status,
power, and opportunities for self-actualization than men. And equally this
positioning which leads to inequality emanates from the organization of society
and extends to other activities that create further undesirable conditions in
most cases. The most powerful organizational positions are almost entirely
occupied by men, with the exception of the occasional biological female who acts
as a social man (Sorenson,1990).
Analytic conflict theory then
explains how gender inequality, gender difference, oppression and structural
oppression bring about women’s general location in the society. And this is
extended to women especially rural women being less privileged in the society, which leads to
poverty, lack of formal education and professional skills. This is why poor
women work in quarry mines as an avenue
for survival despite the health hazards that occur in such settings. Molan
(1999) identified that lower
socio-economic status of women bring about inequalities in all areas, including
being introduced to undesirable work and working conditions that affect their
health. He observed that the relationship between material deprivation, work
women do and health outcomes appears to be crucial. Women in less well off
socio-economic groupings have consistently been shown to be the most disadvantaged with regard to the
kind of work they get involved in and
their health experiences ( Mackinnon 1979; ILO 1991; Matozi 2003 ).
Considering the experiences of women quarry miners in developing countries,
studies have shown that they are exposed to;
unfavorable working conditions, sexual exploitation, lack of safety
measures, long working hours, fatigue,
and are equally being under paid ( Mackinnon 2003; Matozi 2003; Carr 2003 ). In
particular, Espino & Azar (2002) identified that women in small-scale
quarry mining continue to earn lower salaries and have both less social
security coverage as well as less opportunities; and these women in Africa are
not provided security by the law nor by the trade unions who only protect their
own interest. Consequently, experiences of
the rural women in Africa, who work in most of these quarry mines can be
related to their global location (Amazigbo, 1994 ) . They are located where
they are faced with the quarry mine pits as the major work in the rural areas
where they are found outside the seasonal agricultural work; and their position in the unorganized, privately owned quarry
mines can be viewed on their activities
in these pit mines as they work beyond the normal work hours, have no crèche
facilities ( Triest 1998; UNESCO 2003 ). Due to the fact that these women need to keep their job, they are
exposed to the exploitation, physical and sexual, of the mine owners,
contractors and other men; as well as occupational illnesses, uniquely
associated with participating in the quarry mines ( World development report
1998; World Bank 1999; Venter 2001 ).
Research
Hypotheses.
Following from the theoretical framework, the
following hypotheses are formulated.
General
hypothesis: participation of
women in the privately owned small-scale
quarry mines reduces their well-being.
Hypotheses on
specific relationship
1.
Poor women are more likely to work in small-scale
quarry mines than relatively well to do women.
2.
Rural women who are not professionally skilled in
most cases have the propensity to work at the quarry mine.
3.
The unorganized
nature of the privately owned quarry mine push women quarry workers to
irregular work hours at the mine sites
compared to their male counterpart.
4.
Lack of bargaining power of women quarry workers
exposes them to low wages
5.
Rural poor women who work in the quarry mines are
exposed to sexual exploitation
6. Lack of monitoring of the workers condition in
the quarry mines by the government agents, lead to the quarry owners neglect of their social
responsibilities to the quarry workers.