In this section, focus is on some of the
relationships investigated in this study as well as their practical
implications. First of all, in
discussing the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, the study
shows that the age group of people who are most involved in small-scale quarry
mining in Ebonyi State ranged from the age category of 21-30 year group,
followed by those between 31-40 years of age.
Although minimal level of
involvement can be discovered by individuals between the 41-50 year age group,
but 50 and above begin to notice a kind of non-involvement, probably because of
the discovery made by Kunala (2000), that the
heavy load women carry which is not suitable for them, will affect their physical capacity to work
till an advanced age. On sex of the quarry miners, the original pretext
discovered an unstable figure of 4,182 from the six local government areas, chosen
for the study, and out of this raw figure, the number of women involved in the
mining process was higher than that of men. It was discovered that out of the
4,182 miners in these three zones containing the six studied local government
areas 1,280 males were involved at that time in quarry mining, while a total of
2,902 women were discovered to be involved.
The raw figure gotten for women were higher than
that of the men with 1,622. The 30 percent equally brought out the figure
actually studied to be 384 males and 871 females indicating that women are more
involved in small-scale quarry mining than men to substantiate the study done
by; International labour Organization (2003), Hinton (2003); Hinton and
Beinhoff (2003), that small –scale quarry mining is expanding and a times
uncontrollably in many Developing Countries, employing large numbers of women
and children in very dangerous conditions.
This study equally revealed an important aspect of
the workers personal data which is their level of formal education. This is
important as it could go a long way in determining their future engagements and
chances of other commitment in life. From the analysis gotten on education of
the respondents, the category of quarry miners that had no education was very high,
about 688 or 53.2% of the total number, while those that had primary education
trailed with 551 or 43.9%, and others like secondary had 2.7% or 34 and from
bachelors there was practically no one. This shows that those who are involved
in small-scale quarry mining especially in Ebonyi State is very minimal
indicating that they could not possibly find other jobs because of their
minimal level of education or non at all. The study equally discovered from the
column on marital status that majority of the workers are married and this from
the in-depth interview was to help out in some of the family financial
commitments in the family. The other group which was identified belong to the
widowed group who possibly might not see other avenue to survive with the family
members, but to get engaged with the only job available which is the
small-scale quarry mining in the village.
The major issues revealed an outstanding
discoveries, like the number six question on the reasons why women work in the
quarry mines with options of poverty, lack of education, lack of alternative job
and nearness. It was discovered from the
multiple responses, that poverty was the major issue. That majority of the
women involved in quarry mining are possibly there because of their low socio-economic
status.
The figure revealed that 1118 or 89.1% of the 1255
accepted engagement in the mine due to poverty supporting the work of Herzfeld
(2002), that majority of these rural women in Developing Countries especially
Africa are poor, classified as having low socio-economic status and in that
have little economic competitive powers to alternate in-between jobs. This was
followed by lack of education with 66 or 5.3% which is an indication that
poverty especially in Africa countries could lead to one not acquiring the
desired education. Although other issues contributed, but was minimal compared
to poverty, like lack of alternative job
and nearness to the mine sites. So poverty was significantly identified as the
major cause of women participation in small-scale quarry mines of Ebonyi State.
The item on the questionnaire number 7 show that
there are other means which these women could engage in to generate income
outside quarry, trading, animal domestication and tailoring, having these as an
option could be problematic when these women are already impoverished and
mighty not have the financial base to foot these other job options. These other
job options are there in the rural areas for these women, but the follow-up
item number 8 shows from the responses openly answered that most of these women
are in the quarry mines to raise money. They are in effect impoverished and
find it very difficult to financially support themselves in doing any other job
that might be available for them.
This study observed from the 9th item in
the questionnaire that these women get involved in various job activities at
the mines. The women are mostly engaged in loading of stone lumps and also in
packaging, with 1206 and 1124 responses respectively in the multiple response distribution.
They are equally, engaged in clearing with 807, and in breaking with 797.
Although the women were identified at blasting and digging, but in a minimal
level. Which shows that they are highly involved in packaging, loading clearing
and breaking of stones, while they minimally get involved in blasting and
digging. On further probe from the questionnaire item number 10, reasons were
gotten on why they involve themselves in some particular jobs. The major reason
being that the ones they appear many are the ones they could at least perform
like; packaging, loading, breaking and clearing.
On the connection to women holding
managerial/supervisory positions, it was significantly accepted as 1132 or 90.2
percent out of 1255 responded in the affirmative showing that they do. But from
the in-depth interview on women holding managerial position, it was discovered
that majority of them are from the cities and not amongst the rural women who
are not educated. The women in managerial cadre are mostly the ones who are
educated and in most cases related to the mine operators. Also compared to
women, on the response to question number 13, men are involved in the jobs
women do, but there are areas men are mostly identified.
The responses
show that with 1223 in the affirmative
men are involve mostly in digging, blasting 1103 responses, breaking 981 and
packaging 355 multiple response group. The areas like; digging and blasting
where men are mostly found have lesser number of people reporting women’s
involvement, which means that men are mostly found in these areas than women.
The working condition at the quarry mines started
with the time women start work showing with that majority or almost all start
work at 8 am in the morning while some could start other times that could not
be defined. But with 1126 out of 1255, it is significantly accepted that they
start at 8 am and close at no defined hour with 862 responding to that, but
could close at 6pm with 357 agreeing to that. This show that there are moments
these women work beyond normal time as majority accepted that the time of
closure from work mighty not be defined. This is in line with the International
labour Organization (2003) observation that women in the unorganized sector
like in the small-scale quarry mines are expected to work beyond the formal
working hours where there are no leave or crèche facilities, and this has
significant impact on women’s well-being.
The item number 17 well identified with 1202
responses that women and other workers do go on break, but the duration of the
break ends within one hour period. The smaller number of 49 or 3.9% which said
no is insignificant to 1202 or 95.8% that said ‘yes’. So in effect, women do go
on break except the discoveries from the interview that some who might have a special task and
probably want to finish it, this was also part of the reason given by the
smaller number that said no that women do not go on break. On the issue of
women working at night, majority of the respondents 1071 or 85.3% stated that
women do not work at night. The number that said yes was on the same reason of
having a contract job to perform and might not be paid if the job is not concluded.
On the 21st item, the wages women quarry
workers receive, it was shown from the response of 1091 or 86.9% that women
quarry workers are mainly paid by job done. Except where the job is marked from
the expected specification, others identified the daily payment they receive
for a calculated work issues on payment went further to probe on how much women
are paid which show that the work is usually checked based on 6 tones of N1,500
per 6 tones and could be shared amongst so many of them. So this discovery
falls in line with what Rajagopal (2002) observed that these women in the Developing
countries who work in the mine pits, work under hazardous conditions and are
paid wages that are below subsistence.
The probe on whether women receive special
incentives, the response rate of 1129 or 90.8 percent of 1232 or 98.2 percent
indicating, ‘no’ ; show that there are no special incentives given to these
women. This shows that women in these quarry mines of Ebonyi state do not
receive any form of incentives either for the work done or in cases of
accidents.
The 24th
item on the questionnaire dealt with the general conditions of women quarry
workers with some issues raised as the problems which could be discussed here
based on their order. These questions where responded based on the degree of
their effects. The first was sought whether these women quarry mines are
exposed to harsh conditions in the mines. The response of strongly agreeing appeared
highest with 692 or 55.1 percent strongly accepting the fact that women face
very harsh conditions in the mines. The number that agreed was even high with
523 or 41.7 percent. This shows that
women at the quarry mines of Ebonyi State face harsh conditions that are not
suitable for their participation at the
mine pits.
The second level of the same item was on the health
and safety consideration of the workers being ignored. On this issue the number
that agreed was 830 or 66.1 percent while those that strongly agreed was 414 or
33% which show that actually the workers health and safety especially the women
are highly ignored by the operators of
these mines. This is in line with the works of Tomb (1974); Asshforth,
Keriner and Fugage (2000), Kegan and Lahey (2009), that these privately owned
mines in most of the Developing countries do not care about the safety of the
quarry miners.
The third item observed from the response rate, that
the work in the quarry mines tend to be low paid and highly dangerous. The
figure 819 or 65.3 percent and 426 or 33.9 percent of the 1250 that validly
responded, show that the workers especially the women are paid very low considering
the nature of the work which tends to be very dangerous for them. Also on the
fourth item 928 or 73.9 percent and 313 or 24.9 percent accepted under agreeing
and strongly agreeing that those who are sick are replaced. This replacement is
with the identification made on item no 23 where greater number accepted that
there are no incentives for workers. The implication here is that once one is
not capable of performing the expected job or function he/she is outrightly
replaced without any incentives or compensation.
The fifth item on the same column identified that
these women who carry out heavy jobs are paid very low income. The out lay show
that 928 or 73.9 percent agreed, while 313 or24.9 percent of 1251 valid numbers
strongly accepted that these women are paid very low.
The 25th item on the questionnaire with
1090 or 86.9 percent out of 1242 valid number accepted that accidents do and
have occurred at the quarry mines. These accidents were identified to have
ranged from occasional collapse of the stones, stray stone hits to drowning.
And these accidents do not lead to any form of compensation from the mine
operators.
On sexual exploitation of workers (female workers),
the discovery is that the respondents did not feel comfortable about it, as a
greater number accepted that they do not know anything about the case of women
being sexually exploited.
The study further discovered on the issue of welfare
union that there are no welfare unions and that there are no plans equally to
create welfare union either by the workers or
the mine operators. 1104 or 88% said there is no
welfare union and the follow-up identified with 1127 or 89 percent, that there
are no step(s) towards creating welfare union for workers. The study equally
found out with 1127 or 89.8 percent that there are no improvements for workers
welfare.
The other fact which would have brought in some succor was the issue of
government monitoring presence on item number 33. On this, 1210 or 96.4
percent, stated ‘no’ that there is no government presence to help checkmate the
activities of these mine operators and the welfare of the women quarry workers.
The observation done by Amazigo (1994); Berger and White (1999) here falls in
order that with all these problems with small-scale quarry mining in the
Developing countries, there is always lack of concern from the authorities who
do not care about the welfare of these workers. To this issue the respondents
considered it will be worthwhile to have the agency from the government to
monitor the operations there and the workers welfare.
Appendix two dealt with interview with the quarry
mine managers/supervisors and identified that women are part of the team, but
not women who are the indigenes of the areas studied. These other women are
either related to the mine operators and on the other hand if an outside hand
is brought in, she is more formally educated than the women from the rural
areas studied. The research equally discovered that these women quarry workers
are under paid while they work long hours and at the same time engage themselves
in carrying out tedious tasks at the quarry mines. The revelations also include
that the job women do at the quarry mine sites are tiring, dangerous and
generally unsafe for them. In all the problems observed, the situation still
stand that there are no steps by either the mine operators, the government, or
the community leaders in addressing them.
The in-depth interview from the third annexure, men
and women who are faced with the real situations at the quarry mine pits. The
responses discovered that women perform all kinds of activities at the mines,
like; digging, clearing etc., that they could carry, but there are areas where
they dominate. It was equally discovered from responses given that women do not
work at the quarry mines out of sheer interest, but rather because there are
lack of other job options and joined with the issue of being under financial
constraint to engage other work options available around their area. The work
for women at the mines is heavy, unsafe and there are no protective devices for
them as they carry out this work load. There are also no welfare packages for
them, no medical treatment and any form of payment of appropriate order. With
all these problems, the government, community leaders or quarry operators have
no plans to improve the workers welfare.
5.2
CONCLUSIONS
This research work was informed based on the fact
that operations of small-scale quarry mines have expanded uncontrollably in
most of the Developing countries including Nigeria. Ebonyi State is found in
Nigeria where as discovered by the International labour Organization (1993,
2003 and 2007), like in other areas that large numbers of women are employed
under dangerous conditions with the work place fatalities that go with the
unique environment.
The study found out that a larger number of the
rural women work in the small-scale
quarry mines of Ebonyi State; and these women are either not educated or are minimally educated and
have no option then than to get involved in small-scale quarry mines to
survive.
The issue of poverty was discovered to be stronger
as the reason why they participate in the small-scale unorganized quarry mine.
The high x2 value was strong on poverty compared to other compressed
variables with a high number of 766.8.
The work equally discovered that these women start
work early and work beyond the normal working hours. Also the fact that they
work beyond normal working hour do not guarantee any individual either in being
paid high, being given special incentives, or compensated in any form during
any form of accidents. The investigation further revealed that there are no
welfare union for these workers especially for the women who were studied and
to heighten the situation there are no steps taken to create welfare unions to
look into the situation of these women. In effect their welfare is not at all the concern of the small-scale quarry
operators, but either the quarry owners are concerned on how to make maximum
profits. The investigation identified that the authorities are not concerned as
there is no way of monitoring the operations of these mine operators or
creating a conducive environment for these rural poor women to work in.
5.3 Recommendations
From the findings, both from questionnaire and
interviews, these rural women who work in the small-scale quarry mines of
Ebonyi state work under dangerous conditions.
First and foremost it is
recommended that since the number of women who work at the small-scale quarry
mines of Ebonyi State is higher than other groups, the authorities should
through providing alternative job avenues, reduce the involvement of women in
quarry mine pits. In effect to this discovery, government should either build
industrials in the rural areas where at least majority of these women could
formally be engaged or make arrangement for the provision of soft loans through
financial institutions to help these women find alternative jobs. This will not
only go a long way in providing other means of job participation, but will
reduce the impoverished status of these rural women who are already discovered
to be involved in the small-scale quarry mine pits because they are very poor.
Question item seven(7) show from the responses that there are other alternative
options like, farming, trading, animal domestication and tailoring. The
authorities should at least through the established agencies like the National
Directorate of Employment establish and oversee to skill acquisition provision on ways
for these rural women to participate in these other areas.
On the other level, the time these women work have
been discovered to be beyond the normal working hours. The authorities should
at least provide rules guiding work time if these women have no other job choice.
The time of work should be regulated to build the formal working hours.
The condition in the quarry mines for these rural
women have been discovered to be very harsh where their health and safety
considerations are often ignored. There should to this be a way of safeguarding
these women by enforcing law guiding the ethics of working at the quarry mines,
which must be obeyed by the mine operators. The investigation also revealed
that work in the quarry mines tend to be low paid and dangerous, to which the
minimum payment of others in formal job should be addressed to suit the heavy
work these women do in the informal sector. The issue of replacing sick ones
without compensations or those who are involved in accidents should be properly
addressed to make sure that anyone involved in accident at the quarry mine pits
are compensated appropriately and those who are sick are also taken care of in
health institutions; than being replaced with ones able to work.
Since , it was also established there are no welfare
unions for the workers especially the women, and steps are not being taken to create welfare union, the
creation of welfare unions to take care of these rural women’s welfare should
be encouraged and the authorities should equally help to see the unions
function to optimal level. This will help to reduce the ordeals of these women
at the small-scale quarry mine pits. Also the government should make adequate
arrangement to provide a defined and organized monitoring of these small-scale
mines to checkmate the activities of the mine operators and provide a conducive
working environment, if these women have to work at the mines.
5.4 Suggestions for further research
When the researcher was involved in reviewing the literature, it become evident
that very few similar research projects had been undertaken, especially in
Developing countries like Nigeria. Most of the researchs mainly focused on
discoveries made in Developed countries and part of the Asian countries, but
skeletal work in Africa; especially ones that have gender focus. There is
information on women working on the mines in countries such as the United
Kingdom, Australia and the United States. Research could be undertaken that
will look at women who work at other mines where women are also found, like
where they mine zinc, ore, lead, salt etc in Ebonyi state ,where all these and
more could be found, including other parts of Nigeria and Africa.
Furthermore, research
could be undertaker specifically on the issue of sexual exploitation of women as
this work failed to discover much due to peoples’ reluctant attitude to discuss
such issue. Most importantly, it is suggested here that a cross-cultural or
cross- national validation of this research be carried out not only on the
women and their well-being, but equally on men and women comparative
participation in the quarry mines and the other intervening variables used in
this study.