CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
MEANING
AND NATURE OF BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy as conceptually used in
Public Administration is often associated with conduct of public affairs and
the activities of public officials. Therefore, bureaucracies are found in
political religious, business, military, educational and other organizations.
Modern society have come to regard bureaucracy as sine qua non for
organizational effectiveness mark Weber, (1947:196) conceives bureaucracy as a
powerful model of organization, he likened bureaucracy to emotion, which its
description is incomplete; in many aspects, as a way of life, Weber indicated
that bureaucracy involves a clear cut division of integrated activities which
are regarded as duties inherent in office. To him, human organization without
structures, stability and order breeds chaos. Therefore, in order to overcome
what otherwise will lead to confusion in the organization structures, and
ensure stability and order, man created bureaucracy.
2.2
MEANING
OF CIVIL SERVICE/FEATURES
2.3
THE
IMPORTANCE/NEED FOR BUREAUCRACY IN ENUGU STATE CIVIL SERVICE
2.4
BUREAUCRATIC
PROBLEMS IN ENUGU STATE CIVIL SERVICE
Herbert Hicks and Gullet cited in
(Okpata, 2004:74) referred to bureaucracy as! “A label, and not epithet,
bureaucracy denotes an integrated hierarchy of specialized offices, defined
systematic rules an impersonal routinised structure wherein legitimatized
authority rest in the office and not in the person of the incumbent,”
Adebayo, (1981:18) stated that
bureaucracy appeared to have acquired an opprobrious meaning, and odious
connotations hence it is associated with inefficiency, lack of initiative,
unintelligence rigidity in approach to human problems, and down right stubbornness on the part of official. This impression is
very particular to Nigeria civil service and indeed has gained permanence in
recent times and has so manifested in the way civil servants went about their
business.
In the same vein Dimock (1969) cited
in (Okpata 2006:731) identified bureaucracy with institutions and large scale
organizations in society. For him “Bureaucracy” is the state of society in
which institutions overshadow individuals and simple family relationships;
stage of development in which division of labour specialization, organization,
hierarchy, panning and regimentations of large groups of individuals either by
voluntary or involuntary methods are the order of the day.
According to V.S.P Rao in Nwizu
(200:97) the word “bureaucracy” implies an organization characterized by rules,
procedures, impersonal relation, and an elaborate and fairly rigid hierarchy of
authority responsibility and relationships. In simple terms, it implies the
most efficient and rational organization in which there is clearly defined
hierarchy of offices, each office with a clearly defined area of jurisdiction,
each office filled by an individual tested to posses the highest technical
qualifications and the entire set of office linked together by a system of
rules, procedures and impersonal relationships.
Ralph, (2001:84) opined that the
word bureaucracy is always in mixed and confused with red rape. This has
brought untold hardship to a good number of people who want to express their
views on either bureaucracy or red rape. For him bureaucracy is a form of
organization that possesses certain special structural characteristics designed
to maximize efficiency in pursuit of established goals”. He went further to
state that the most important structural characteristics are a permanent class
of civil servants with clearly defined duties, whose authority is officially
fixed by law and record keeping so that past decisions can be used as the basis
for future administrative actions. The result is a system of administration
that can provide routine, uninterrupted services where officials are prove to
emphasize operational effectiveness and relational behaviour over other
organizational values.
Ihejiamaizu, (1996:9) sees
bureaucracy as an organization with a hierarchy of paid, full time officials
who form a chain of command. He reiterates that bureaucracy is often formed
when people or individuals engage in some collective effort to achieve some
collective goals.
Vieg (1989:55), says in free
translation that bureaucracy means “desk government” or management by bureaus”.
That it denotes the sum total of the personnel apparatus and by which an organization
manages its work and accomplishes its purpose. The organization may be public
or private, commercial, educational or ecclesiastical, but if it is of any
size, it must be bureaucracy.
Davis (1949:66) took a structural
views of bureaucracy as an organization. He used the term for denoting “an
integrated hierarchy of specialized offices defined by systematic rules an
impersonal routinised structure wherein legitimized authority rest in the
office and not in the person of the incumbent.
Blau and Mayer (1966:161) lays great
emphasis on functional aspect of bureaucracy. They defined bureaucracy as
organization designed to accomplish large scale administrative rank by
systematically co-coordinating the work of many individuals.
Websters third international diction
any (1971) defined bureaucracy as a system of administration marked by constant
striving for increased functions and power by lack of initiative and
flexibility, by indifference of human needs or public opinion and by a tendency
to defer decision to superior or to impede action with red rape. The body of
officials that gives effect to such a system”.
Coser and Rosenberg (1976:68)
defined bureaucracy as that type of hierarchical organization which is designed
rationally to co-ordinate the work of many individuals in pursuit of large
scale administrative tasks.
Bureaucracy according to Hyneman
91980:102) is a form of organization superior to all others we know or can hope
to afford in the near and middle future, the chances of doing away with or
changing if probably none is in existence in this century.
Mbawike (2003:78) defined
bureaucracy as any large organization that operates lender division of labour,
hierarchical structure, formal rules and regulation impersonal rational
relationship and competence as a basis of employment. She further stated that
the superior effectiveness of bureaucracy, its capacity to co-ordinate large
scale administrative task, and superior efficiency are the expected results of
its various characteristics as outlined by Weber the acknowledged Chief
proponent.
Sergioranni and Starrat (1990:225)
in their contribution, further asserted that bureaucracy provides us with orderliness
and efficiency, while the costs are in its deterministic programming character
which often result to rigid impersonal organizational structures.
Stillman (1998:49) argued that
bureaucracy as the general formal structural elements of a type of human
organization particularly the collective personnel and structures of a
governmental organization. He maintains that bureaucracy has both good and
adverse qualities, and sees it as a neutral term rather than as a hostile
negative traits of large organization.
Tyagi (2004:406) affirmed that
“bureaucracy” is used to describe any personnel system where the employees are
classified in a system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections,
divisions, bureaus, departments and the like. He also added that the management
or every large scale enterprise has necessity to be carried on through a well organized
system of scions and bureaus manned by a hierarchy of officials, he added that
every large scale administration, public or private, is bureaucratic.
Encyclopedia Britannica stated that
the term “bureaucracy” signifies the concentration of administrative power in
bureaus or department and the undue interference by officials in matters
outside the scope of state interference.
Pfiffner (1997:26) used the term
bureaucracy in this sense, “Bureaucracy is thee systematic organization of
tasks and individuals into a pattern which can most effective effort.
Onah (2005:57) “Bureaucracy” is
generally used to refer to specific set of structural arrangement often found
in large organizations. She went further to state that bureaucracy is used to
describe large scale formal and complex organizations with the line of
authority arranged in hierarchical order. She also sees bureaucracy as a
government by paid officials irrespective of the political party in power. That
bureaucracy in this respect manifests itself most in the executive arm of
government under the civil service. Hence, that the term bureaucrats refer to
the caner officials in the civil service as against the political officials.
Agbonifor (1999:55) asserts that
bureaucracy denotes integrated hierarchy of specialized officers defined by
systematic rules an impersonal routinized structure where in legitimized
authority rest in the office and not in the paria of the incumbent. He went
further to state bureaucracy deals with the ideal way of structuring
organization, so that maximum efficiency is attained.
Mcfarland (1979:81) sees bureaucracy
as a system of organization and management, in which roles, tasks, and the
relationships among people and positions are clearly defined, carefully
prescribed and controlled in accordance with formal authority. He stated that
the idea is efficiency in organization which it aims to achieve though
measurement discipline and impersonality.
Berastein (1987:38) asserted that
bureaucracy is a system with se rules of managerial and regularized ways of
recruiting and appointing people who have the necessary expertise for their
tasks. He went further to state that bureaucracy is seen as people vocational,
looks at their jobs as careers ad are accorded status and salary. They maintain
records, co-ordinate their operations and evaluate the effectiveness of their
work.
Mouzel (1989:70) stated that
bureaucratic administration means the exercise control on basis of knowledge.
It is established for the purpose of co-coordinating organizational activities
in order to achieve certain goals.
According
to him, bureaucracy consists of rules which define tasks and responsibility of
each participant as well as the formal mechanism which would permit the
integration of these tasks.
Finally, having looked at
bureaucracy by different authors, the researcher have it that bureaucracy is a
situation in an organization where people are paid for full time work and
placed in positions according to seniority. Also work is done collectively to achieve
collective results.
2.2
MEANING
OF CIVIL SERVICE/FEATURES
Civil service, according to the
civil service hand book (1972) described civil service as the government
machinery that manages its affairs and carries out its day to day duties that
public administration demands.
Nwoso, (1977:92) shortly put that civil
service “is a body or organ which enjoys continuity of existence.
Adesayo (2000:107) sees the Civil
Service as the bedrock of the executive arm of government, charge with the task
of implanting and executing the policies decided by the political authorities.
Avasthi and Maheshwai (1962:388)
asserts that the term civil service has been defined in Britain as “those
servants of the crown other than holders of political or judicial offices, who
are employed in a civil capacity and whose remuneration is paid wholly and
directly out of monies voted by parliament. An analysis of this definition
shows that the term excludes persons in defense forces, person holding
political or judicial offices, and persons who work for government in an
honorary capacity or are paid out of public revenues.
FEATURES OF CIVIL SERVICE
Nevertheless,
the new civil in Nigeria has certain appreciable features or legacies, values
and ideas in their conjectures such as the value of honesty, prestige,
devotion, selflessness, neutrality and impartiality etc, that enables every
bureaucratic or civil servant to work towards accomplishing public objectives.
(Eze, 1995) cited in Okpata
(2006:389) identified some of those features like: selfless service, political
neutrality, career service, professionalism.
In the same vein, Ezeali and Edeh
(2007:111-112) identified other features of the civil service which includes:
permanency in office, political neutrality merit system, impartiality,
operation within the frame work of the law, strict regulations and procedures,
hierarchy and expertise.
2.3
THE
IMPORTANCE/NEED FOR BUREAUCRACY IN ENUGU STATE CIVIL SERVICE
In reality of the present modern
government, public bureaucracy has become inevitable in modern society; as it
has become the main instrument through which any government implement social
change.
First, bureaucracy aids in the
framing of legislation. Bureaucrats are at their best when it comes to framing
of legislation.
Uduma (2003:107) noted that
bureaucrats play an active role in the initiation and framing of laws which are
usually recommended to the legislature for satisfaction and approval.
In the same vein Okpata (2004:75)
added that framing of legislation is on important function of bureaucracy that
once a bill has been passed into law on a broad principle, the bureaucrats will
spell out details of the legislation for effective implementation. In spelling
out the details of legislation, the bureaucrat, because of this expert
knowledge and information, exercises wide discretion and can extend the
legislation beyond its original intents with the basic understanding that
bureaucracy operates at the executive arm of the government, this function of
the bureaucracy has become very important in situations of strong executives.
The executives usually initiate thus most legislation, and bureaucrats train
most of the executive legislation.
Bureaucrats recommend policy.
According to Okpata (2004:75) this is perceived as a new function of the
bureaucracy. Traditionally, policy is solely believed to be the duty of the
legislations but with increasing complexities of modern government and the
volume of technical legislative issues awaiting the attention of the
legislatures, with the need for expertise knowledge and competence, advice and
guidance, the bureaucrats are usually called up in such pressure ridden
situation coupled with the urgency an technical details of some policies to
assists the legislators. He further states that this role is in tandem with the
understanding that technical experts of various dimensions and qualities are
located in the bureaucracy, which is indispensable in the process of
legislation.
Dum, et al (2004:29:30) affirmed
that another importance of bureaucracy is that it enables the specialization of
function. He argued that specialization converts complex activities into simple
tasks with each position handling the aspect of job in which it is most
competent and disposed to handle. Also that bureaucracy creates structure. That
the duties of each person is clearly spelt out and makes for easy coordination
of organizational activities while eliminating indecision.
He went further to state that
bureaucracy creates room for creditability and stability. That the
creditability and stability of an organization is premised on the rules and
regulations, structure, specialization and other features of bureaucracy.
Creditability and stability in the sense that it makes for order and
rationalizes human relationship that would have been irrational and accidental
and also provides certainty in the organizational activities.
Furthermore he noted rationality as
an important function of bureaucracy. Fir him bureaucracy emphasizes on
technical competence and qualification as the sole basis for gaining and
holding a hob. In this way, there is no room for favoritism, ethnicity and nepotism;
rather job opportunities and promotion are based on achievement, qualification
and experience.
Meanwhile, Chukwuemka et al (1998)
in Okpata (2004:75) noted other functions which includes;
Engineering
and implementing social change, influencing public policy, implementing public
policy and discharging routine duties of government.
2.4
BUREAUCRATIC
PROBLEMS IN ENUGU STATE CIVIL SERVICE
Despite the importance and seeming
inevitability of the bureaucracy in modern society, it has been faced with a
lot of problems. Even max Weber himself who is seen ass the father of modern
bureaucracy was fully aware of such problems and criticisms and fears about
bureaucracy.
First, the division of labour which
bureaucracy demands apparently lead to monotony and boredom. Most importantly
it leads to alienation. This explains a situation where the workers is estrange
or dissociated from the surrounding society. Being afraid of this situation,
Weber wrote that “it is horrible to think that the world would one day be
filled with little cogs, little man changing to little jobs and string for
another bigger ones”.
Schafer (2002:203) argued that true
division of labour has certainly enhanced the performance of many complex
bureaucracies, in some cases it can lead to trained incapacity: that is workers
become so specialized that they develop blind problems. Even worse, they may
not care about what is happening in the next departments.
Bureaucratic values of impersonality
are constantly in conflict with societal values. According to Rosen bloom and
Krauchuk, (2002:205), public organization, bureaucratically as organized, tends
to be in tension or conflict with society in terms of style of action,
emotional feelings, and overriding concerns. The differences between societal
and bureaucratic values, in short, are social interaction versus doing and the
beliefs randomness, and emotionalism versus specialized expertise systemization
and impersonality, while to Weber, “the question in order to keep a position of
mankind free from this parceling out of the soul, from this supreme mastery of
the bureaucratic way of life.
The problem of red tapes associated
with the bureaucracy is one which seems highly over-flogged. However, the
frustrations which people meet every day in their interaction with public bureaucracies
are such that still call for emphasis on this issue. Apart from the fact that
many third world bureaucracies are indolent and inefficient (like in Nigeria),
all over the world, the adherence to rules and regulations has made the
bureaucracy to be noted for its slow nature.
Schaefer (2002:206) believe that
adherence to rules is quite in order but he argues that at times it over
shadows the large goals of an organization and becomes dysfunctional. If blindly
applied, they will no longer serve as a means to achieving an objective but
instead will become important (and perhaps too important) in their own right.
The demand of conformity to official
regulations has always pitched the bureaucracy against the people who find it
difficult to understand why public officials cannot use their initiatives to
get problems solved. Victor Thompson (1961:105) brought home this point when he
wrote that:
The
bureaucratic culture makes certain demands upon the clients as well as upon the
clients as well as upon the organization employees. There are many people in
our society who have not been able to adjust to those demands. To them
bureaucracy is a curse. They see no good in it whatsoever, but view the demand
of modern organization on red rape.
Bureaucracy is inconsistent with
democratic governance. According to Onah (2000), bureaucracy is an anti thesis
of democracy. Although in literature, bureaucracy is efficient, but if it is
compared with democracy, it is clearly seen that both principles contradicts.
Democracy is a government of compromise, understanding respect of all
recognition of system most of the time people are manipulated by those who they
elected into position to rule, this situation has been described as ‘the
illusion of democracy” democracy involves supremacy of the people, supremacy of
the people in government.
This is why Abraham Lincoln defined
Democracy as government of the people, by the people and for the people. Unlike
bureaucracy, it rules and principles of bureaucracy are stacked to and if it is
not diluted it would not blend well with democratic government.
Obi and Chukwuemeka (2006:112)
observed that it is obvious that inefficiency of civil service are discredits
to the democratic government in Nigeria are all caused by the strict adherence
to the bureaucratic rules by the civil service thus, leading to poor and
belated policy making and subsequently Methuselah age to be implemented, all in
the name of due process, while the populace which consumes the outputs are in
jeopardous state. This obliviously differs from military administration, where
the military administrator gives order to the civil service and it shall be
carried out. Example was the military regime of Mike Torey in Enugu State.
However, rash decisions were made
them.
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