2.0 LITERATURE
REVIEW
Literature is reviewed to cover the
under listed areas; what is entrepreneurship?
Definition of
Entrepreneurship
Concepts of
Entrepreneurship
Characteristics of
Entrepreneurs
Environment of
Entrepreneurship
Factors influencing
Investment in Agribusiness
2.1 Definition
of Entrepreneurship,
The term entrepreneurship derives from French verb “entreprendre”,
which means to: Undertake” (Hisrich, peters shepherd, 2008:6). One of the
earliest reference to the term entrepreneurship has been traced to Richard
Cantillion’s work (1734) who was the first to associate entrepreneurship with
risk bearing. To contillion entrepreneurship was self-employment with an
uncertain return (Lambing & kuehi, 2007:16).
Schumpeter categorically launched the field of entrepreneurship (1947),
not only by associating entrepreneurs with innovation, but also by
demonstrating the importance of entrepreneurs in “creative destruction” and
hence economic development (Venter, Urban & Rwigema, 2008: 13).
In the words of innah and Omodu (2010), defining entrepreneurship as
risk – taking neglects other major elements of Entrepreneurship, such as a well
developed ability to recognize Unexploited market opportunities. Again,
defining entrepreneurship as a stabilizing force limits entrepreneurship to
reading markets disequilibria, while entrepreneurship defines as owning and
operating a business, denies the possibility of entrepreneurial behaviour by
non-owners, employees and managers who have no equity stake in the business.
Therefore, he deduced that the most appropriate definition of entrepreneurship
is the one which defines entrepreneurship as a force that mobilizes other
resources to meet Unmet market demand”, the ability to create and build
something from practically nothing” and the process of creating value by value
pulling together a Unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity”.
However, Timomons (1994) defined entrepreneurship as a attempt to
create value through recognition of business opportunity, the management of
risk or risk-taking appropriate to the opportunity and through the
communicative and management skills to mobilize human, financial and material
resource necessary to bring project to function.
Defining entrepreneurship has been problematic as academics and researchers
fails to come to generally accepted definition of the term entrepreneurship
(Burns, 2007:7). Hisrich et al (2007) believe that the development of
the theory of entrepreneurship parallels to a great extent to the development
of the term itself and provided below.
At Middle Ages entrepreneurships are known as the actor and person in
charge of large-scale projects, in 17th century entrepreneurship are the entrepreneur
bear risk of profit/loss-buy at certain price and sell at uncertain price. 18th
century, they are known as the person with capital were distinguished from
person who needed capital while 19th and 20th century, they recognized as entrepreneurs
organizes and operates a business for personal gain. They are viewed as an
innovator that develops something unique (Hisrich et al 2008:6-7). Stevenson
and Jarillo (1990:23) defines entrepreneurship as the process by which
individuals, either on their own or inside organizations, pursuer opportunities
without the resources they currently control.
Stighler (2001) defines entrepreneurship as the process through which
individuals and teams create value by bringing together unique collection of
resources to take advantage of opportunities. It can occur in any
organizational context and results in a variety of possible outcomes, services,
processes market and technologies.
Entrepreneurship has the ability to see and assess opportunities and
more importantly, are able to initiate the appropriate actions to ensure
success. Kirby (2003) in his words opined that it is this last factor that
distinguishes an entrepreneur from an inventor. He further defines
entrepreneurship as the ability to create and build something from practically
nothing. It is initiating, doing, achieving and building a business, rather than
just watching analyzing or describing one.
Further emphasis to the process notion comes from Rwigema and Venter
(2004), that defines entrepreneurship as the process of conceptualizing,
organizing lambing and through innovation, nurturing a business opportunity
into a potentially high growth venture in a complex, unstable environment.
Also, Morris et al (2008) define entrepreneurship as the process of creating
value by bringing together a unique package of resource to exploit an
opportunity.
Hisrich et al (2008) again, define entrepreneurship as the process of
creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort,
assuming the accompanying financial, psychic and social risks and receiving the
resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence. From
as human orientation, Timmons and spinelli (2009) define entrepreneurship as a
way of thinking, reasoning and acting that is opportunity obsessed holistic in
approach and leadership balanced.
2.2 Concepts
of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship involves a process. According to Shane, locke and
Collins (2003), this process is manageable, can be broken into steps and is
ongoing. Further more, it can be applied in any business context (Collins,
Smith and Hannon, 2006).
Entrepreneurship creates value where there was none before. The
creation of this value has to have both value to the entrepreneurship
(Nieu-wenhwizen 2003) and value to the audience for whom it was developed
(Hisrich 2008). Entrepreneurs put together resources in a unique way. Unique
combinations of money, people, procedures, technologies, materially facilities,
packaging, distribution channels and other resources (Thornbery, 2003). They
are opportunity driven (Kirby, 2003). The ability of Entrepreneurs to spot an opportunity
arising out of charge or even create it then focus resources on delivering what
the market want is the essence of their success (Burns, 2008). Assuming the
risk is the final aspect of entrepreneurship.
Risk is inherent in the known future and is enhances by the novelty
intrinsic to entrepreneurial behaviour, such as the creation of new products,
services or processes (Hirich et al 2008).
Entrepreneurship thus results in the creation, enhancement, realization
and renewal of value which encompasses the process of creation and/or
recognition of opportunities.
It therefore requires a willingness to take calculated risks and then
to do everything possible to reduce the chance of failure. Entrepreneurs,
typically, would devise ingenious strategies to marshal and control their
limited resources (Temmons and Spinelli, 2009).
2.3 Characteristics
of Entrepreneurs.
The firs approach, which focuses on the person of the entrepreneur
researcher has tried to identity traints or characteristics of individuals in a
effort to differentiate entrepreneur from non-entrepreneurs (Maes, 2003).
Personality traints are defined as
dispositions to exhibit a certain kind of response across various situations.
There fore, it is assumed that personality traits are predictor of entrepreneurial
behaviour (Ranch and Frese, 2007) and can be viewed as the psychological
underpinnings of the human capital existing in a business, as it refers to the
stock of experience, silks and knowledge accumulation by its refers to the stock
of experience, skills and knowledge accumulation by its members over time
(Marcati, Guido and Peluso, 2008). The characteristics of individual are there
fore fundamental to nurture and sustain entrepreneurial behaviour (Hayton and
Kelly, 2006). Whether these entrepreneurial tendencies exist at birth or an
developed as a person matures, certain characteristics are usually evident in
those entrepreneurs who enjoy success (lambing and (Kuehl, 2007)
The characteristics of entrepreneurs
are listed below as follows.
(i) High
levels of commitment.
Commitment is viewed as more important than any other factor since an
entrepreneurs must over come many obstacles and set backs (Kwartko and
Hodgelts, 2004). Entrepreneurs therefore show shear determination and an unwavering
commitment to succeed often against odds that many people would consider
insurmomtable (Rwigema and Venter, 2004). Total commitment is required in
nearly all entrepreneurial ventures and almost without exception, entrepreneurs
live under constant pressure. A new venture demands top priority for the
entrepreneurs time, emotions and loyalty ( Timmons and Spinelli, 2009)
(ii) High levels of creativity innovativeness
Creativity is the soul
of entrepreneurship (Morris et al, 2008) whilst innovation is the specific fool
of entrepreneurs, the means by which they exploit change as an opportunity for
a different business or services (Zhao, 2005). It assumes a willingness and
interest to look for new and novel ways of doing thing (Rauch and Frese, 2007).
This imagination and ability to envisage alternative scenarios is one of the
reasons, according to lambing and Kuehl (2007), why entrepreneurs are
successful.
(iii) Ability to take responsibility
entrepreneurs willingly put them selves in situations where they are personally
responsible for the success or failure of a venture (Kuratko and Hodgelts,
2004), Bessant and Tidd (2007), also argue that the ability to take
responsibility is closely associated with need to achieve. Entrepreneurs
therefore do not that fate, luck or any other powerful external source will
govern the success or failure of their venture (Timmons and Spinelli, 2009).
(iv) Problem-
Solving Skills.
Decisionness is a virtue in the
running of any business and entrepreneurial thinking therefore demand a high
degree of problem solving propensity (Venter et al, 2008). Individuals who are
more oriented to word solving problems will always view difficult, unfamiliar
and pool structured work tasks as solvable ( Raab, Stedham and Neuner, 2005).
Further more, Burns (2008) is of the opinion that where others see problems,
entrepreneurs often see an opportunity.
(v) Capacity to Inspire Others.
Entrepreneurs have an
uncanny ability to make heroes out of the people they attract to the venture by
giving them responsibility and sharing credit for accomplishment (Timmons and
Spinelli, 2009). Dynamic business depend upon the commitment and drive of the
business members, customers and suppliers (Rwigema and Venter, 2004) and
entrepreneurs engage the energies of everyone in their domain, both in side and
out side the business.
(vi) Willingness to undertake personal
sacrifice
The previously discussed
high levels of determination and perseverance that entrepreneurs possess, usually require some form of personal
sacrifice such as the willingness to put their own home on the line (Burns,
2008) and through other major sacrifices in lifestyles and family circumstances
(Timmons and Spineli, 2009).
(vii) Self – reliance.
Entrepreneurs are self- reliant and
prefer a degree of autonomy when accomplishing a task. The perception that they
have poor to maneuvers in affecting
their own destiny is highly valued (Morris et al 2008). This does not necessary
imply that entrepreneurs want to make all the decisions, but they want to make
the important ones (Kuratko and Hodgelts, 2004).
(viii) Calculated Risk- Taking
In most instance decision in entrepreneurial ventures are made in
uncertain situations. Inevitably risk is at the heart of every venture (Rauch
and Frese2007). Managing this risk is however one of the qualities of any
successful entrepreneurs (Lambing and Kurchl, 2007).Entrepreneurship thus take
calculated risk (Morris, et al 2008). They calculate the risk very carefully
and thoroughly odds in their favour (Timmons and Spinelli, 2009).
2.4 Environment
of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship begins with the observation of a previously unnoticed
profit opportunity, but as the pervious section has been known, profits
opportunities are just not wanting for the ordinary person to observe and act
upon.
Once the opportunity is created, typically it is acted on rapidly, by
those who are in the proximity of the opportunity. It makes sense, for example,
that those working in the computer industry are the people most likely to
observe on opportunity in that industry. As Hayek (1945) noted, everyone has
knowledge specified to their own activities, and the economy will be most
productive when the economic system gives on the specified everyone an
incentive to act on the specific knowledge they process. Hayek stressed the
advantages of a market economy, which allows individuals to act on their own
specific knowledge of time and place, and also provides the incentives, in the
form of entrepreneurial profits, to act entrepreneurially. Entrepreneurial
activity depends to a large degree on allowing entrepreneurs to keep the
profits from their entrepreneurial actions.
This is well- recognized. Entrepreneurs also respond to the availability
of entrepreneurial opportunities. The more opportunities available, the more
alert entrepreneurs will be to word finding them.
Noticing an entrepreneurial opportunity might be compared to finding
money on the side walk. A person walks by and is alert to the fact that the
money is there, and picks it up and profits from it. few people keep a vigilant
lookout for money on the side walk for the simple reason that there is not much
lying about to be picked up. If finding money on the sidewalk were a more
frequent occurrence, surely people would be walking with their eyes down, more
alert to the opportunity. So it is with entrepreneurship.
The entrepreneurs notices an opportunity nobody else has been before,
but often it is because the entrepreneur is trying to be alert to up coming
opportunities.
And Like the money on
the side walk, entrepreneurial opportunities do not lie around for long before
they are picked up by some one.
Here the analogy stops, however, once the money is gone, nobody else
have the opportunities to find it. However, when entrepreneur’s an entrepreneurs
acts, more entrepreneurial opportunities are created, making it more likely
that one can find a profitable opportunities by following in the tracks of
other entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship creates more opportunities and gives potential
entrepreneurs more of an incentive to look for them.
Potential entrepreneurs can engage in search activities in to increases
the probability that they will come upon an entrepreneurial opportunity. In an
environment where opportunities frequently arise, remaining alert is
profitable, which gives people an incentive to search for and be alert to
entrepreneurial opportunities, and creates more entrepreneurial alertness.
Because entrepreneurial activity is the most common source of
entrepreneurial opportunities, entrepreneurship tends to be clustered. Certain
industries are more entrepreneurial than other, as are certain geographic areas
and certain nations. Entrepreneurship creates an environment where more
entrepreneurship can thrive. Silicon valley in California provides where entrepreneurship is clustered as some
entrepreneurs remain on the look out for opportunities created by past
entrepreneurial acts.
If past entrepreneurship used up opportunities rather than creating
them, one would expect the most promising opportunities to lie far a field from
recent entrepreneurial success. This new of entrepreneurship as the creator of
entrepreneurial opportunities completes
Kirzner’s model of entrepreneurship.
Kirzer focuses on how entrepreneurs respond to entrepreneurial
opportunities, and this arise a result of the actions of entrepreneurs them
selves. The act of entrepreneurship creates more entrepreneurial opportunities,
initiating a perpetual process of entrepreneurial discovery.
2.5 Institutions
and Entrepreneurship.
Scully (1988,1992) has noted the importance of free
markets in the creation of an environment conducive to economic growth, and
Barro (1996) argues that it is the protection of economic freedom rather than
democracy and political freedom that creates a productive economic environment.
In the words of Gwartney, Lawson,
and Block (1996) relate economic freedom to economic growth and identify those
particular market institution that appear most closely associated with economic
growth. Along the same lines, Gwartney, Lawson, and Holcombe (1999) show the
close relationship between market institutions and economic growth, holding
constant factors such as human and physical capital, and political institution.
Those examples are representatives of an extensive literature on the importance
of market institution to the production of economic growth.
Entrepreneurship is a key ingredient
to a prosperous economy, and while this requires a vibrant private sector,
government policies can have a major effect on the amount of entrepreneurship
that take place. Government can encourage entrepreneurship by providing a
stable economic environment and by protecting property rights. Market
institutions are vital as a foundation for entrepreneurial activity, and excessive
government interference through taxation, regulation, and redistribution, can
kill the incentives for entrepreneurship. Investment and productivity increases
follow automatically in a environment that allows entrepreneurship to thrive.
Entrepreneurial acts have a certain
amount of mystery surrounding them. But creating an environment within which
entrepreneurship thrives is not a mystery.
Stable market institution are the key.