The review of related
literature will be carried out under the following sub-headings.
* Conceptual framework
* Theoretical framework
* Review of empirical studies
* Summary of review
CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
This will be reviewed under the following
sub-headings:
Business Studies;
Universal Basic Education
(UBE);
Funding of UBE;
Nine-year Basic Education
Curriculum;
Curriculum Implementation;
Adequacy of Material Resources
and Curriculum Implementation; Adequacy
of Human Resource (Teachers) and Curriculum Implementation;
Provision of Human and
Material Resource: Rural /Urban Dichotomy.
Business
Studies
Federal Republic of
Nigeria (1981, 1989, 1998 and 2004) put in place the 6-3-3-4 system of
education with the global aim of equipping students at all levels of education
with the required knowledge, skills and attitude for gainful employment towards
self reliance and national development. Asoga-Allen in Onou and Shabi (2008) stipulates the broad goal of
secondary education to be the preparation of the individuals for useful living
within the society and higher education. Onuo and Shabi (2008) opine that
business education is an important tool for the realization of this broad goal.
In agreement Azih (2008) affirms that business education plays an important
role in the economic growth and development of any nation. Agreeing with this
view, Eze (2008:113) insists that, “the introduction of business education in
JSS in Nigerian schools was targeted primarily at providing students with the training that
will make them ready for the world of work, as well as provide opportunities
for further education”. In the same vein, Nwaokolo (2000) sees the goal of
business education as the provision of skills to the youths in an effort to
fight unemployment, poverty, urban migration and ignorance. Similarly, Aina
(2002) opines that business education is mainly concerned with the development
of personal skills and attitudes, communication and computational skills,
technological literacy, employability skills and occupational skills and
knowledge. Oborah (2005), Okwuanaso (2004) and Osuala (2004) respectively share
the common view by asserting that business education bequeaths to the
recipients necessary skills and knowledge needed to take active part in
entrepreneurial ventures.
Business education
is a part of vocational technical education which manifests at the upper basic
education (JSS) level in the form of business studies. Business education at
this level is sub-professional in nature. According to Ogunmayi (2008),
business studies is a prevocational elective subject which relates to business
education. Agreeing Okpanku and Uchechi (2008) opine that business education is
offered at junior secondary school as business studies. Identifying with this
idea, Azih (2008:135) affirms that ‘business studies is a prevocational subject
for business education’. Similarly, Onuo and Shabi (2008) submit that business
education manifests itself at JSS level in the form of business studies. These
submissions imply that business studies is business education at the pre-
vocational level.
Business studies is
a prevocational subject introduced by the 1981 National Policy on Education. It
is an integration of five business subjects namely: Bookkeeping, Shorthand,
Typewriting, Commerce and Office Practice (Ukor, 2008). Collaborating with the
above Ogunmayi (2008) asserts that business studies which is taught in an
integrated manner as a component of technical education is made up of
typewriting, shorthand, book keeping, commerce and office practice. Similarly, Nwachokor
and Akiti (2008) opine that pre- vocational business subjects offered at JSS
level are typewriting, shorthand, bookkeeping, commerce and office practice
which are put together under the heading ‘Business Studies’. Stepping further,
Onuo and Shabi (2008) hold that these subjects are seen and taught as areas of
knowledge in a single subject (Business studies) and not as individual
entities. At this juncture, Azih (2008) opines that business studies is
expected to form a solid root for
students offering business subjects especially the skilled ones like shorthand,
typewriting and bookkeeping.
FRN (2004)
reviewing the mandate of business studies at the secondary school level reveals
that on completion of secondary school, students:
(i) Will secure employment either at the end
of the whole course or after completing one or more modules of employable
skills.
(ii) Set up their own business and become self-
employed and be able to employ others.
(iii) Pursue further education in post secondary
(tertiary) technical institutions such as science and technical colleges,
polytechnics or colleges of education (tech.) and universities.
Nwachokor and Akiti
(2008) and Ogbaekirigwe (2010) state the
objectives of JSS business studies to include: acquisition of basic knowledge
of business studies; developing basic skills in office occupation; preparation
for further training in business studies; provision of orientation for basic
skills for a life of work; provision of basic skills for future personal use;
and relation of knowledge and skills to national economy.
However, all these
point to and agree with the submission of Ogunmayi (2008) that business studies
as a component of technical education lays emphasis on practice. Still in
keeping with the above, Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDC 2007:iv) states the general objectives of Business Studies as to:
Provide the orientation and basic skills with which to
start an occupation for those who may not have opportunity for further training.
Provide basic business skills for personal use now and in the future. Prepare
students for further training in Business Studies. Relate the knowledge and
skills to the national economy. Develop basic skills in office occupations.
In order to achieve the
foregoing lofty objectives, inter alia, it becomes imperative that the existing
curriculum should be reviewed, re-structured and re-aligned. Then the National
Council on Education (NCE): approves a new curriculum structure- lower basic
education curriculum (Primary 1-3), middle basic education curriculum (Primary
4-6), and upper basic education curriculum (JSS 1-3); listed relevant subjects
for each level; and directs the NERDC to review, re-structure and re-align the
curriculum to fit into a 9-year basic education programme (NERDC, 2007)
Universal
Basic Education
Delving into
history, Ocho (2003) traces that in
1976, Obansanjo launched the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme at Sokoto
but regrets that, 27 years later, primary education had not become universal in
Nigeria.
Continuing, Ocho states that in 1999,
the same Obasanjo launched another education programme with another universal
tag, the Universal Basic Education (UBE)in the same Sokoto. Again Ocho regrets
that President Obasanjo did not give a critical comparison of the two schemes,
an analysis of the reasons for the failure of the earlier scheme and the basis
for the expected improved chances of success of the latter scheme.
The above comparison becomes more necessary on the
realization that, from the name, the UBE is certainly a more ambitious and more
demanding programme than the UPE. While the UPE scheme concerned itself with
getting all children of primary school age (6-12 years) in Nigeria into the
school, the UBE scheme is concerned with giving basic education to all
Nigerians who have not attained that level (Ocho, 2003).
Still in his historical
approach, Ocho traces that basic education predated western system of education
and asserts that the traditional society tried to ensure that all citizens
received basic education comprising:
(a)
Communication education for effective interpersonal
interaction;
(b)
Moral training
that enabled society to live in peace, solidarity and unity;
(c)
Doctrinal training, dealing with issue of life after
death;
(d)
Occupational training that ensured gainful employment
for everybody (total
absence of
unemployment);
(e)
Leisure education that ensured everybody participated
in leisure activities
(dancing, singing,
games, athletics, storytelling, etc); and
(f)
Citizenship education that ensured selfless services
to the society.
Ocho
(2003) further assesses that basic education in our society must include the
six major areas of traditional education, differing only in details,
instrumentation, universality, diversification, and formal systematization,
since it aims at proper adaptation of the individual to his society for his own
survival, growth and development, and for that of his society. He concludes this assessment by proposing the
content of our current basic education to include (among others): occupational
education for gainful employment, and science and technology education to
enable recipients make use of scientific and technological equipment.
Universal
Basic Education Commission (UBEC, 2006) defines universal basic education (UBE)
as an educational reform programme of the Nigerian Government that provides
free, compulsory and continuous 9- year education in two levels: 6 years of
primary and 3 years of junior secondary education for all school-aged children.
The Commission explains that the legal framework for the UBE programme is the
UBE Act, 2004 signed into law in May 2004 by President Obasanjo. This Act
provides for compulsory, free universal basic education for all children of
primary and junior secondary school age in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. It
also stipulates penalties for parents who fail to comply with its provisions.
UBEC (2005) traces
the legal justification for the UBE Act to section 18 (1) and (3) of the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which provides that:
(1) Government shall direct its policy
towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational opportunities at
all levels;
(2) Government shall strive to eradicate
illiteracy and to this end, government shall as and when practicable provide;
(a) free, compulsory and universal primary education
(b) free secondary education
(c) free university education; and
(d) free adult literacy programme
The Commission observes that
this section of the constitution imposed a duty on all the tiers of government
to strive to eradicate illiteracy and provide free and compulsory basic
education but notes that this duty is non- justifiable. Item 60(e) of part 1 of
the second schedule to the constitution confers exclusive legislative powers on
the National Assembly to prescribe minimum standards of education at all levels
(FRN, 1999). The foregoing forms the legal framework for the UBE Act.
Universal Basic
Education programme, according to Osadolor (2007) is a reform measure of the
Federal Government aimed at rectifying the existing distortions in the basic
education sub-section of Nigerian education system. Tahir (2005) opines that
universal basic education is intended to actualize the ideals in the 1998
National Policy on Education. He asserts that UBE programme will enable Nigeria to be
committed to genuine investment by investing in the younger generation.
Obiweluozo (2007) argues that UBE was adopted as a tool for reducing the
incidence of drop- out from formal education as well as eradication of mass
illiteracy. Nwachokor and Akiti (2008) agree with both Tachir and Obiweluozo
when they state that UBE comprises a wide variety of activities and programmes designed to enable learners acquire
functional literacy. They (Nwachokor and Akiti) assert that UBE indicates
restructuring and reorientation of the nation’s education system focused on
technological, economic and social development. They as well, insist that UBE
aims at equipping the individual with such knowledge, skills and attributes
that will enable him live a meaningful and fulfilling life, and also contribute
to the development of the society. In fact Nwachokor and Akiti (2008) and
Abiara (2010) give the objectives of UBE to include:
1. To develop in the entire citizenry, a
strong consciousness for education, and
a strong commitment to its vigorous promotion;
2. To provide free, compulsory universal
education for every Nigerian child of school-going age;
3. To reduce drastically drop-out rate
from the formal school system through
improved relevance and efficiency;
4. To cater for drop- outs and out-of-
school children /adolescents through various forms of complementary approaches
to the provision and promotion of basic education;
5. To ensure the acquisition of the appropriate
levels of literacy, numeracy, life skills as well as the ethical, moral and
civic values needed for laying the foundation for lifelong learning.
Consistent
with the above, UBEC (Nd) holds that UBE
was introduced to remove distortions and inconsistencies in basic
education delivery and reinforce the implementation of the National Policy on
Education as well as provide greater access to, and ensure quality of basic
education throughout Nigeria.
The Commission gives the aims of UBE as:
(a) Ensuring an uninterrupted access to
9-year formal education by providing free, compulsory UBE for every child of
school-going age;
(b) Reducing school drop-out and improving
relevance, quality and efficiency and;
(c) Acquisition of literacy, numeracy, life
skills and values for lifelong education and useful living.
Similarly, the
Commission expresses that UBE vision is that ‘at the end of nine years of
continuous education, every child should acquire appropriate and relevant
skills and values and be employable in order to contribute his/her quota to
national development. UBE is actually an education reform programme which
places great emphasis on acquisition of psychomotor skills especially in
vocational and technical education.
FRN (1999) states about ten basic features of this reform
programme among which are: emphasis on curriculum diversification and relevance
to effectively and adequately cover individual and community needs and
aspirations; disarticulation of junior secondary schools from senior secondary
schools; realignment of junior secondary with primary education; and
appropriate continuous teacher professional development. UBE (2006) opines that
one of the twelve key issues in the UBE Act (2004) is that services provided in
public primary and junior secondary schools shall be free of charge. These are
tuition, books, instructional materials, furniture and mid-day meal. In a
broader sense, Maduewesi (2005), Udofot (2005), Tahir (2005) and Afe (2005)
identify services delivered in basic education to include: facilities
supply/instructional aiding, supervision, access, personnel provision and
retention, capacity building, product assessment/certification,
mobilisation/consensus building. Others are: community partnership, research
and development; collaboration, private sector ventures, legal /policy matters,
recreation and health. These services are expected to be completely free of
charge. The UBE Act even provides that a person who receives or obtains any fee
commits an offence and is liable to a fine not exceeding N10,000 .00 or imprisonment for a term of three months or both.
Funding
of UBE
The Act provides
that services provided in primary and junior secondary schools shall be free of
charge, but it is realistic to accept that according to Enyi (2004), nothing,
including education, is ever free. Somebody always has to pay for it in one
form or another. Enyi (2004) argues that no government has been able to fund
education single-handedly. He decries that, as at 2004 Ebonyi State
government seemed to assume full financial responsibility for the UBE
programme. Agreeing entirely with this view, Egwu (2004) posits that education
is so capital-intensive that government cannot fund it alone. She insists that
free education is only free in relative rather than absolute terms.
Commenting on sources of fund, UBEC (2006) states that
UBE programme is funded by the states and local governments with support from
the federal government through its intervention fund. The UBE Act provides that
the Federal Government shall set aside 2% of its Consolidated Revenue Fund
(CRF) to support the states in the implementation of the UBE programme. The 2%
of the CRF amounted to N24.3 billion in 2005, N30.48 billion in 2006, and N35
billion in 2007.
This Act, according to UBEC (2006), provides that the 2%
CRF shall be disbursed to the states in the following proportion:
i.
70% Matching Grant to states on equality basis
ii.
14% Fund to address Educational Imbalance among and
within states
iii.
5% fund for the implementation of the Home Grown
School Feeding and Health Programme
iv.
5% Incentive to States for Good Performance
v.
2% Fund for the education of the Physically and
Mentally Challenged Children
vi.
2% Fund for Monitoring of UBE Programme
vii. 2% Implementation Fund.
In order to qualify
to access Federal Government’s UBE intervention fund, the state is expected,
among other things, to: enact the state UBE Act and establish state basic
education board; provide matching grants to the intervention fund; draw up
state UBE Action plans; and establish adequate mechanism for programme
implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
The Act (UBE) further provides that 5% of the Matching
Grant be utilized in the implementation of Early Child Care and Development
Education (ECCDE), 60% for primary Education and 35% for Junior Secondary
School (JSS) Education. It still provides that the Matching Grant be applied
for: construction of classrooms/furniture etc. 70%; procurement of textbooks,
instructional materials etc. 15%; and teacher professional development etc.
15%(UBEC,2006).
The state herself does much in the funding of UBE.
Speaking on this, Egwu (2006) poses that
Ebonyi State had done exceedingly well and that
it was only Ebonyi
State that had accessed
all the quarters of 2005 matching grant at the beginning of 2006. Igidi,
Chukwu, Eze, Ngele and Nwizi (2006) hold that Ebonyi State
government had always met its counterpart funding obligations. They further
state that education attracted 46% of Ebonyi State 2006 budget as Governor
Egwu’s top priority.
Besides the federal
matching grant and the state allocation to UBE, there are other sources of fund
available for the implementation of UBE. Igidi et al (2006) name UNICEF and ETF as other sources of fund for the
execution of specific education projects in Ebonyi State.
Similarly, Egwu (2006) discloses that UBEC inspects the utilization of
intervention fund together with other funds available to the state from UNICEF,
UNESCO ,World Bank etc. These, however, prove that the funding of UBE programme
in Ebonyi State is now jointly done not only three tiers of government but also by other
local and international agencies.
Nine-
year Basic Education Curriculum
Curriculum according to Akuma
(2005) has no universally accepted definition but curriculum experts and
educators have agreed on what curriculum should be. Onwuka in Akuma (2005:1)
defines curriculum as “a total experience with which the school deals in
educating young people”. Similarly, Mkpa in Akuma (2005:3) defines curriculum
as “a vehicle through which the school strives towards the achievement of
educational ends, be they those of the nation, state, local governments or even
the community”. Still in that line, Pattison and Berkas (2000) opine that the
school curriculum provides a plan of instruction that indicates structured
learning experiences and outcomes for students.
Going a step
further, Smith, Stanley
and Shores in Akuma (2005) observe that the curriculum has a set of educational
goals and objectives and a way of determining whether or not the objectives have
been achieved by the learners. Towing the same line of thought, Tyler and Taba
in Akuma (2005) propose four components of curriculum to include: goals and
objectives, content, learning experiences and evaluation. Similarly, Pattison
and Berkas (2000) hold that curriculum specifies the details of student
learning, instructional strategies, the teachers’ roles, and the context in
which teaching and learning take place. They (Pattison and Berkas) further
assert that researches (on teaching and learning and on the characteristics of
successful schools) had broadened the scope of curriculum to include everything
that affects what happens in the classroom and consequently affects students
learning. Congruent with the above, Oteh and Akuma (2010) opine that a curriculum
consists of the totality of experiences that learners are exposed to in order
to enable them imbibe the culture and tradition of a society, conform to all
its norms, and participate in efforts to ensure its continuity.
Synthesizing existing curriculum development models, Oteh
and Akuma (2010) come up with a modified, cyclic curriculum process that is
made up of:
1. Needs assessment,
2. Selection of aims, goals and objectives,
3. Selection of content,
4. Selection of learning experiences,
5. Organisation of content and learning experiences, and
6. Evaluation
Amadi (1999) and
Onyemerekeya (2004) agree that needs assessment is a logical starting point for
it is carried out to identify needed changes or gaps in the learner or society.
Toba (1962), Nicholls and Nicholls
(1972) and Skilbeck (1984) in Oteh and Akuma (2010) hold that needs assessment
involves collection of information that can be used to develop a profile of
needs in order to be able to make decisions regarding the expected outcomes as
well as the educational programme. Identifying with this position, Oteh and
Akuma (2010) hold that situation analysis involves collecting information about
the context in which the curriculum is being designed, in order to arrive at
decisions regarding the why, what and how of the programme.
The Federal
Ministry of Education (FME) in Igboke (2002) while conducting situation
analysis, identifies curriculum deficiencies as one of the factors responsible
for the failure of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme which was
tried two decades ago. The first Policy document on Technical and Vocational
Education, according to FRN in Ukor (2008) emphasises the need to widen and
enrich the curriculum in a way that it will help the youth prepare for the
world of work, develop skills and interest and be able to contribute more to
the life of the community. Olaitan
(1996) asserts that Business studies can help the graduates of JSS to be
self-employed if the curriculum is reviewed to include enough entrepreneurial
training in the content. He believes
that this will lead to reduction to unemployment rates, improved standard of
living and a decrease in poverty level.
This author identifies curriculum
review as a critical condition for achieving self-employment through Business
Studies. In agreement, Nwachokor and Akiti (2008) opine that the laudable
objectives of the UBE programme will not be achieved except the barriers of
inadequate and un-updated curricula are looked into. They specifically insist
that the business studies curriculum for the Junior secondary school at the UBE
level needs to be revised in order to make it more current and up-to-date. In
support of this view, Atakpa (2008) insists that it is imperative to introduce
reforms into business studies curriculum for the pogramme to successfully train
youths with relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable them fit
well into modern offices.
According to Hornby (2004), reform
means to improve a system by making changes to it. Similarly, Adeboye (2008)
sees reform as setting out an ideal standard that people think is acceptable.
In a broader sense Nwafor (2007) opines that reform is a widely adopted
innovation. This author sees innovation as a change that is deliberate,
purposeful and can be on a small or large scale. This opinion is in line with
the definition of innovation in Adams and Chen in UNESCO in Nwafor (2007:14) as
“any persistent change in the patterns of behaviour of members of an
identifiable social system.” We live in a constant changing world, hence
education requires continuous evaluation and revision. Therefore any form of
resistance to this need for dynamism leaves a gap between education and
reality. Innovation is a novel or a departure from a customary practice that
can be sustained for sometime. It is situational and relevant to a group in
time or place (Nwafor, 2007).
Ezekwesili in FRN (2007) reveals
that it is the mandate of the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDC) to develop curricula for use at all levels of the educational system in
Nigeria.
In line with government declaration of a 9-year basic education programme, the
NERDC was directed by the National Council on Education (NCE) to re-structure
and realign the existing primary and junior secondary school curricula to meet
the targets of the 9-year Basic Education in the context of National Economic
Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS) and the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). Confirming this position Obioma in FRN (2007:11) states that:
following the decision of the federal
government to introduce the 9-year Basic Education Programme and the need to
attain the MDGs by 2015 and, the critical targets of the NEEDS, which can be
summarized as: value reorientation, poverty eradication, job creation, wealth
generation and using education to empower the people, it has become imperative
that the existing curricula for primary and JSS be reviewed, restructured and
re-aligned to fit into a 9-year basic Education Programme. The NCE at its meeting
in Ibadan in
December 2005, directed the NERDC to carry out this assignment.
This led to the production of 9-year Basic Education
Curriculum which according to Obioma in FRN (2007) reflects depth,
appropriateness, and interrelatedness of the curricula contents. Similarly,
Ezekwesili in FRN (2007) gladly recommends the curriculum to all for the
purpose of producing the best textual materials, the best in teaching
performance and the best learning out come, and most importantly, for attaining
the goals we set for ourselves. Confirming this FRN (2007) reveals that the
alignment of the curriculum took cognizance of the need to provide students the
ability and skills to be gainfully employed as well as prepare them for setting
up their own businesses. The thematic approach to content organization was
adopted in order to provide the learner a holistic blend of theory and practice
of Business Studies.
Curriculum Implementation
Curriculum implementation, according to Okello and
Kagoire (1996: 124) “is a network of varying activities involved in translating
curriculum designs into classroom activities and changing people’s attitudes to
accept and participate in these activities”. Pattison and Berkas (2000) hold
that the final step into curriculum planning consists of implementing the
curriculum in the classroom and continued monitoring, reflection, and
evaluation to improve it. These authors explain that teachers are responsible
for implementing the curriculum as it evolves and determining if it is having
the desired effect on student learning. Okafor (2007) believes that curriculum
implementation is the act of taking actions towards the realization of the
intention of a curriculum plan.
The planners of this curriculum did
not lose sight of the fact that a curriculum cannot be implemented in a vacuum.
Hence FRN (2007 : v) explains that “as one of the pre-vocational elective
subjects at the upper basic education, it is crucial that adequate provision be
made in terms of human and material resources in order to promote saleable
skills acquisition and employment generation possibilities”. These planners did
not stop at that, they went ahead to allocate time as another very important
resource saying “five periods a week should be allocated to business studies to
enable all the contents in the integrated subject to be covered”. Nwafor (2007)
opines that those elements operating in the system to enable it to achieve
specified goals together with the surrounding environment constitute the inputs
in an educational innovation project. Facilities and equipment help to
stimulate interest and also enhance retention of ideas especially when they are
optimally utilized (Okpanku and Uchechi, 2008). Soba (2007) sees school
facilities as a pillar in support for effective teaching and learning to take
place in ideal environment. Adeboyeje (2000) and Emetanon (2004) describe
school facilities as the physical and spatial enablers of teaching and learning
which will increase the production of results.
Nwafor (2007) enumerates educational
innovation inputs to include plants, buildings, equipment, technology and other
materials. Saba (2007) lists school facilities
to include: the school building, classrooms furniture, libraries, laboratories,
recreational equipment and other instructional aids. Onou and Shabi (2008) list
facilities for business education in the secondary schools to include :
1. Standard and well-equipped typewriting
laboratories,
2. Standard and well-equipped shorthand
laboratories,
3. Adequate and functioning manual typewriters,
4. Adequate and functioning electric
typewriters,
5. Adequate computer sets,
6. Audio tapes and cassettes for shorthand
dictation,
7. Relevant
textbooks for typewriting and shorthand theory and practical lessons,
8. Relevant textbooks for typewriting and
other business subjects,
9. Headphones for shorthand dictation,
10. Sufficient lighting and ventilation, and
11. Uninterrupted power supply (UPS).
Similarly, Ogbaekirigwe (2010) lists equipment and
materials considered as basic to the teaching of business studies to include:
typewriter, stapling machines, perforators, alarm clock, stopwatches, tape
recorders, bulletin boards, file jackets, ruled chalkboard etc. FRN (2007: 53-
54) lists the materials needed for teaching and learning of business studies as
an appendix to the curriculum under review to include:
Typing room
Domwell desks
Swivel typing chairs
Typewriters
Ink duplicating machine
Photocopier
Filing cabinet
Stapling machine
Perforator
Guillotine
Stop watches
Tape recorder
Alarm clock
Bulletin boards
Adding | listing machine
Punch (with single and double holes)
Incoming register
Dispatch book
Visitor’s book
Telephone message pad
Request form booklet
Store record book
Postage book
Shorthand pens
Chalkboard (ruled and unruled. Ruled side should have
3 inches between lines),
Sound tapes | cassettes
Shorthand note books
File jackets
Carbon paper
Reams of plain typing sheets (a4 and
a5)
Flimsies for carbon copies
Typewriter eraser/ mechanical
eraser/tipex
File tags
Booklets of ruled ledger sheets
Analysis sheet for trial balance
Duplication paper a4
Typing sheets a4 headed paper
Typing sheets a5 headed and memo
Business document specimens stencil.
Commenting on human resources, Adeshina (2005) affirms
that the quality of business education teachers is a very good determining
factor for how far the programme will go. Quality teachers, he says, will turn
out quality students of business studies. In view of this assertion, the
business studies teacher is required to be well prepared and well informed for
the achievement of the mandate. Similarly, Akene (2002) states that business
studies teacher should possess the knowledge, skills and attitudes desired of
all educated persons, the technical competencies required in one or more areas
of business studies, a knowledge of the principles and methods of teaching and
some practical experiences in business occupations. In his own contribution,
Ali (2004) speaks of provision of adequate number of trained and qualified
teachers of the subject to meet approved student/teacher ratios and
student-classroom teaching (number of periods per week). Then, Igboke (2002)
opines that the teacher occupies a prominent position in the learning process
and that the success of any programme or course of study depends on how
successful the teacher had been in the application of his skills and knowledge.
According to Mkpa (1987), the teacher’s success in the discharge of his lesson
presentation and other duties depends on his physical, emotional, psychological
and intellectual competencies. Lillis (1988) warns that paper qualifications
are not reliable indicators of the performance of individual teachers.
Alumode (2002) assesses that
teachers have always continued to be fundamental assets in all forms of
education process. He specifically opines that UBE programme is an attempt to
educate the populace which requires that teachers be developed since no
education system may rise above the quality of its teachers FRN (2004)
instructs that all teachers in educational institutions shall be professionally
trained. Teacher education programmes shall be structured to equip teachers for
effective performance of their duties.
Adequacy of Material Resources and
Curriculum Implementation
The
success or failure of curriculum implementation depends on the availability of
required technical infrastructure, field trial and utilization of its results
in taking decisions, the prompt delivery of the required quality of materials,
adaptability to the socio-cultural environment and their cost of procurement
and maintenance in relation to the country’s financial capacity (Nwafor, 2007).
The Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC) Committee on
Business Studies in Ogbaekirigwe (2010) recommends that adequate material and
equipment be made available to a class of forty (40) students while industrial
visits should be undertaken by students to relevant places. This committee
believes that Business Studies is a practical subject and should be taught
practically.
Attah in Esene and Okoro (2008) sees teaching
materials and equipment as devices used to supplement or complement teachers’
talks. This author gives the range as from simple/inexpensive to more
complicated/expensive ones, and further explains that teaching materials
include office supplies like stationary, typing papers, carbon papers, file
jackets and tags, while teaching equipment refers to typewriters, demonstration
table, swivel chairs, wall clock, duplicating and photocopying machines etc.
In their own view, Ivowi
(2000) and Odigbo (2005) agree that adequate facilities ensure meaningful
teaching and learning. Adeogun in Akomolafe (2005) believes that teachers’
confidence relate positively with the quantity and quality of instructional
facilities. Availability, maintenance and adequacy of teaching facilities are
described by Ulifun (1986) as sine-qua-non for the attainment of all
educational programmes. This author believes that learning would be less
meaningful without teaching facilities because students would grope in darkness
for long before grasping what the teacher says. On this note Akinsolu (2004)
warns that educational curriculum cannot be sound and well operated with poor
and badly managed school facilities.
Chiaha (2011) appears
more holistic describing school plant as the entire physical facilities
including the school physical environment, and infrastructural facilities like
the school outlook, flowers, trees, roads and paths, fields, farms, sporting
facilities, furniture, structure, laboratories, library, classrooms, toilets
etc. Oboegbulam and Chiaha (2007) assert that in addition to aesthetic view and
beautification of the school environment, school plant facilitates teaching and
learning. Onyene and Salusi (2008); Ayeni, Jaiyaba and Atanda (2008); Asiyai
(2008); and Okoroma (2006) agree that school plant is a very essential factor
in students’ academic achievement as well as teachers’ attitude to teaching and
classroom management. Olutola in Akumah (2011) adopts a comparative approach by
indicating that more importance should be attached to the impact of facilities
on educational experiences. Similarly, Fobis et al in Akumah (2011) stating the
importance of school facilities affirms that it is difficult to implement the
curriculum without the school plant; and that it enables both the learners and
teachers to improve their work performance.
However,
Hamza (2000) and Nwagwu (2007) regret that the short supply of instructional
materials in Nigerian secondary schools hinders teaching and learning. Towe in
Okpanku and Uchechi (2008) believes that for Business Education to have any
meaning, equipment and machines to be used should be made available. On this
Aliyu in Okpanku and Uchechi (2008) asserts that, being a vocational education
programme, Business Education cannot do without adequate supply of material
resources. In line with the above, Ile (2001) insists that business education
departments should be adequately and sufficiently provided with instrumental
facilities and equipment if optimum teaching and learning should take place.
Adeshina (2006) observes that most of the equipment provided in public
secondary schools is nowhere near those in the world of work. In support of
this, Onou and Shabi (2008) assert that it is generally observed that most of
the facilities and equipment provided are grossly inadequate and outdated.
This
condition is not peculiar to Nigeria
but rather characteristic of developing nations. Sibulwa (1996) complains that
in developing countries, the number of pupils and teachers have kept on rising
but government money available for education is less. Mkandawire (2010) observes that in most government
schools in Zambia,
with an exception of the newly built, infrastructure is in deplorable
condition. In agreement, Kelly (1999) describes the schools in Zambia as
dilapidated, unsafe and sometimes unusable. The latter further states that
furniture is also inadequate in most schools and in some cases, seats and desks
are battered or totally absent. He concludes that instructional materials and
equipment are in short supply or may not be available at all.
School Library and Curriculum
Implementation
Hornby (2004) describes library as a
room or building containing books that can be looked at borrowed; or a group of
books, CDs etc, collected by one person. In the same vein, Collins (2009)
opines that a library may be either public or private. He explains that a
public library is a building where books, newspapers, videos, and music are
kept for people to read, use, or borrow. He again describes a private library
as a collection of books or music, that is normally used with the permission of
the owner.
The library according to Akpan, Isah
and Sunday (2012), serves as laboratories and plays a vital role in the academic
programme of teaching and learning in any institution. Akpan, Isah and Sunday
believe that the objectives of UBE cannot be achieved with library support
since the library provides reading materials and other graphic sources to
support educational programme. They assert that the library must be set up to
cater for the learning needs of young people whose schooling was interrupted,
and ensure the acquisition of appropriate level of literacy, numeracy,
manipulating, communicative and life skills. Udoh in Akpan, Isah and Sunday
(2012) opines that school library encourages students to use books
independently, read for pleasure, improve reading skills and develop their love
for books. He concludes that the school library should be an integral part of
the UBE for effective delivery of the UBE programme.
Aguolu and Aguolu (2002) describes
school libraries as those libraries established as integral parts of primary
and secondary schools with the objective of providing instructional materials
to enrich the curriculum, to supplement textbooks and classroom instruction and
to give students unlimited opportunities for learning. Similarly, Oguseye in
Akapn, Isah and Sunday (2012) assert that the school library provides books and
non-book materials to support the teaching and educational activities of the
school. Mohammed in Akpan, Isah and Sunday 92012) takes a radical approach
describing the school library as a library properly equipped and effectively
utilized. The International Federation of Library Association Committee…. In
Akpan, Isah and Sunday (2012) posit that books are indispensable tools in
education and a child who has learnt to use and enjoy them is better able to
continue his studies when he lives school. In the same vein, Obama (2005)
opines that reading is the gate way skill that makes all other learning
possible, from complex world problems to scientific discovery and technological
proficiency. Fafunwa in Akpan, Isah and Sunday (2012) sums it up by describing
the school library as the heart of the school around while all school
programmes revolve.
The condition of school libraries
according to Dlakwa, Akpan and Matthew in Akpan, Isah and Sunday, (2012, is
deplorable; they lack adequate and relevant materials and most of the
materials, where they exist are out dated. Infact Akpan, Isah and Sunday
observe that the falling standard of education in Nigeria may be attributed to
the deplorable situation of library services in our educational institutions.
They affirm that the library facilities in primary and post-primary schools are
poor and inadequate where available, Igu (2007) joins by stating that school
libraries, where available, are filled with old and obsolete books that are
irrelevant. Mustapha (2011) complains that in addition to dearth of relevant
and curricompliant textbooks, majority
of the teachers in south-east zone are still battling to catch a glimpse of the
new curriculum. Mustapha further warns that for the basic education curriculum
to succeed, relevant authorities must provide enough copies of the curriculum
and bark on textbook revision, development and writing.
Adequacy of Human Resource (Teachers)
and Curriculum Implementation
FRN
(2004) states that no education may rise above the quality of its teachers and
that the minimum qualification for entry into the teaching profession shall be
the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE). Teachers are the most important
human resource in curriculum implementation since they are the ones who adopt
and implement the idea and aspirations of the designers. This implies that a
sufficient supply of trained teachers is needed if the implementation of the
curriculum is to be effective (Mkandawire, 2010). This agrees with the
assertion of Alumode (2002) that teachers have always been and are likely to continue
to be fundamental assets in all forms of education process. Stressing the
importance of teachers, Esene and Okoro (2008) insist that for students to
acquire the necessary skills and abilities, business studies teachers should be
academically and professionally qualified. Then Anyaduba in Ogbaekirigwe (2010)
believes that a business studies teacher without the general knowledge of all
the business subjects e.g Commerce, Office Practice, Bookkeeping, Computer,
Shorthand and Typewriting, will be considered incompetent.
The declaration of free and
compulsory primary and secondary education in Ebonyi State
in 1999 led to phenomenal increase in enrolment that the number of qualified
teachers on ground becomes inadequate to march with the enrolment (Alumode,
2005). This reconfirms the assertion of Edeh (2001) that Ebonyi Sate does not
have sufficient number of qualified teachers but falls into the temptation of
filling the vacancies with unqualified teachers. Supporting this view, World
Bank (2004) and Ocho (2007) state that staffing in Ebonyi State
secondary schools is nothing to write home about both in quality and quantity.
Ogba (2008) reports that Parents Teachers Association (PTA) employ auxiliary
teachers in order to augment the deficiency of teachers. This agrees with the
regrets of Udoh (2002) that many secondary schools are filled with National
Youth Service Corps (NYSC) and PTA teachers whose devotions to duty cannot be
guaranteed.
Agwu in Ogba (2011) opines that
qualified teachers are those teachers who went through and completed, in a
formal teacher training institution, a planned programme of training among
other areas in the principles and practice of Education and were exposed to an
observed period of interrelationship as part of the period of training. This
means that qualified teachers must have registered with the Teachers’
Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) or, at least, be registrable by
possessing NCE, B. A. Ed., B. Sc. Ed. or B. Ed. Aguokogbue (2000) states that
qualified teachers are expected to be competent in professional knowledge,
skills, understanding students in all respects and in classroom management.
Fafunwa (2002) believes that the problem of fallen standard in Education in Nigeria today
is attributable to shortage of qualified teachers.
According to Asonibare (1996), weak,
misguided, incompetent, ignorant and unimaginative teachers will make the most
creative modern curriculum to be of little use. Anuna and Obi (2006) assert
that without the service of qualified teachers in the school system, education
would be a curse rather than a blessing. Awoniyi in Ogba (2008) warns that
educational institutions should not be polluted with unqualified and
inexperienced teachers.
Emenanjo (1992) observes that there
is dearth of teachers which is worsened by those available being wrongly
placed, overworked, poorly motivated and unevenly distributed. Agreeing with
this observation, Ukeje (1992) states that the present education system lacks
well qualified, appropriately placed, dedicated, committed and competent
teachers. Reacting to this Ezeh (2006) explains that school administrators in
this dilemma coerced teachers to teach subjects which they do not specialize
in. Consequently Adeboye (2007) remarks that the teaching personnel in Nigeria is not
only inadequate but also professionally unqualified.
Training and development will help
to acquaint these teachers with the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities and
attitude to make them improve their performance. According to Oloyede in Ogba
(2011), training is a process of imparting basic and specific knowledge, skill
and ability that will bring desired improvement. Ndaba, Ogba and Ibiam (2010)
see training as investing in the staff the necessary skills and competencies
that will empower them to perform better and make the best use of their natural
abilities. Conversely, Ogba (2011) describes development as a multifaceted
process which concerns human resources and involves those learning
opportunities that are designed to provide general knowledge and attitude that
will help employees to grow. Similarly, Ominyi and Opa (2008) see staff
development as the process of acquainting staff with necessary competence,
responsibility, creativity and greater freedom that will enhance their
commitment. However, these two concepts are either juxtaposed or used
interchangeably. After all, Ogba (2011) who attempts to draw a distintion
between them ends up using them interchangeably in her work.
Madumere-Obike (2004) sees training
and development as a means through which organizations meet their required
obligations to workers, secure staff commitment, develop and manage workers for
optimal performance. Again, Ominyi (2008) states that training and re-training
of staff is a deliberate and systematic means of inculcating positive attitude
and behaviour capable of achieving organizational goals. The only way to
achieve quality instruction in the school system is to expose school personnel
to training and development programmes (Odo, 2005). Ogba and Igu (2009) opine that
one of the objectives of an educational system is to provide their products
with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their
assignment.
Training and development will help
teachers get abreast of the changing situation in their environment. A well
adjusted staff is an asset to self, organization of employment and the nation at large. Some staff have
adequate knowledge and skill prior to their employment but with increase in
their tasks, they begin to lack skill and competence. Then in-service training
is resorted to in order to help them adapt to the changes in their work place
(Igu, Ogba and Ominyi, 2009). A teacher who is not exposed to training and
development is bound to inculcate bad norms to students. Ukeje (1992) states
that any practitioner who ceases to study ceases to be effective. The present
knowledge explosion phenomenon, according to Okorie and Uzor (2009), demands
that staff be exposed to in-service training and development courses. Ekpo in
Ogba (2011) believes that staff need continuous training and development
irrespective of their pre-service training in order to take care of obvious
areas of inadequacies. In his own opinion, Fafunwa in Oloyede in Ogba (2011)
states that no significant change in education could take place in any country
unless its staff is well developed, trained and retrained. Okorie and Uzor
(2009) and Adedeji and Olaniyan in Ogba (2011) insist that in the 21st
century, the development of a nation is measured by the level of training and
development of its manpower. Adeogun, Sabair, Salisu and Olisaemeka in Ogba
(2011) trace the problem of inefficiency in secondary schools today to
inadequate manpower to match school enrolment and failure to expose existing
staff to training and development. Aderounmu and Ehiametalor in Ogba (2011)
believe that staff development correct staff deficiencies, help experienced
staff to develop further instructional skills, keep staff abreast of current
trend in their area of specialization and up-grade their skills to match
present administrative positions.
Staff in public and private schools
are provided with in-service training to enable them acquire more professional
qualifications, skills, knowledge and competence for efficient performance of their primary
functions (Okafor, 2006). Nwachukwu (2000) insists that without adequate
professional development staff stand the risk of stagnation which, in turn,
hinders realization of educational goals. This implies that training and
development programmes provide opportunities for staff to make-up for their
inadequacies. Ominyi and Opa (2008) explain that in-service training for newly
employed staff comes in the form of orientation, induction courses,
instructional supervision, seminars, conferences, workshops and refresher courses
while for the staff, regular and
properly conducted staff meetings, briefings, etc could be used. Efforts
towards the improvement of quality of education according to FRN (2004) shall
include: exposing teachers regularly to innovations in their profession;
appointment of academically and professionally, qualified personnel as teachers
and head teachers: and regular in-service training for teachers and head
teachers.
Mustapha (2011) notes that most of the
teachers in the country have not been equipped with necessary skills and tools
to implement the new curriculum. He advises that these teachers be trained and
re-trained, pointing out that this training should go beyond mere
presentation of academic papers. Similarly,
Mkandawire (2010) regrets that due to the problem of under funding of education
in Zambia,
training and re-training of teachers are not attended to. This author points
out that the Zambian education system lacks adequately trained and motivated
teachers. Okoh (2001) regrets that most of our N.C.E. and B. Ed. teachers are
emptier than the children they are supposed to teach. In line with this, Igboke
(2002) advises that teachers training agencies should raise the level of
initial professional preparation of teachers and career- long development of
serving teachers. Egwu (2006) regrets that many Nigerian teachers are
uneducable and untrainable, and advised that retraining should start with those
that are trainable and educable.
Teachers need adequate
motivation to carry out their mandate of translating educational
programmes into practical
experiences (Aguba in Ogba, 2011).
Arikewuyo in Ogba (2011) believes that a desirable organisation is one that
provides the staff with adequate remuneration, job enrichment, job satisfaction
and job development for the attainment of organisational goals and objectives.
Obi in Ogba (2008) sees motivation as the perceptions, methods and activities
used by managers for providing a conducive climate for the satisfaction of the
various needs of the employers to make them satisfied, dedicated and effective.
Similarly, Okafor (2006) states that motivation is the willingness to exert
efforts and ability to fulfil an individual’s needs. Mary in Abba, Anazado and
Okoye (2004) refers to motivation as those forces within a person that affect the person’s direction, intensity
and persistence of voluntary behaviour. Again, Griffin in Abba, Anazado and Okoye (2004)
sees motivation as a set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways.
Similarly, Ganon in Abba, Anazado and Okoye (2004:142) defines motivation as
“the act of directing an individual’s behaviour towards a particular end
through the manipulation of incentives”. Deductively, every individual has
particular needs the satisfaction of which affects the individual in a
predictable way.
Incentive can be seen as an
encouragement given to one to put more efforts in what one is doing. According
to Onyene (2000) incentive packages in education include : commensurable salary, pension, rules and regulations , social
status, promotion and promotability, esteem and propensity to rise and
professional development. Similarly, Onwurah and Anurugwo (2007) deduce that
school incentive packages are as follows: adequate working salary, staff
development opportunities, conducive working environment, upward movement
within the structure of the education system, recognition, remunerations,
benefits and allowances. The pertinent question here is how adequate are these
incentives in the school system as to make for effective curriculum
implementation and retention of teachers in the profession.
Onwurah and Anurgwo (2007)
find that the roles of incentives include attainment of educational goals,
shaping of individual and group behaviour, job commitment, job satisfaction and
increased job performance. This result agrees with the findings of Stoner,
Freeman and Gilbert (2000) which reveals that incentives do not satisfy
teachers’ needs. Conversely, Okonkwo in Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997) and Ejiogu
(1990) find that attrition is mostly caused by the inability of the teaching
profession to satisfy the teachers’ needs. Osadolor (2007) believes that the
inadequacies in the provision and retention of teachers result from lack of
support from supervisors who ought to be seen as professional colleagues. In
the same vein, Udofot (2005) posits that teachers in the system are traumatized
and de-motivated, and when they retire, some of them are not paid their
retirement entitlements till they die. He stresses that this phenomenon affect
both job performance and the teachers’ psyche.
Ene (2007) opines that teachers are not adequately
motivated and linked poor performance of students in external examinations to
this ugly situation. Fagbamiye (2005) observes that teachers labour under
stressful condition and are generally poorly motivated. Confirming this, Ugwu
(2001) states that lack of motivation of teachers by the school administrators
has led to truancy on their part. Approaching this phenomenon from its
implication point of view, Mgbodile (2005) and Ugwu (2007) regret that poor
motivation of teachers has led to widespread and high rate of examination
malpractice, poor learning achievements, high rate of students’ indiscipline,
cultism, low teacher morale and students’ poor attitude to studies. Collaborating
with the above, Adamechi and Romaine (2000) and Ogbuanya (2005) see poor
motivation of teachers as being characterised by boredom, drudgery, frustration
and teaching just to earn small salary and not to impact knowledge.
Provision
of Human and Material Resources: Rural/Urban Dichotomy
Newmann
and Oliver (1967) classify community into rural and urban. Taking a bipolar
approach, Ayih (1988) classifies communities into modern or traditional,
literate or illiterate, liberal or autocratic, orthodox or fundamentalist,
secular or pluralistic, urban or rural. The latter believes that urban
communities are comparatively modern, liberal, literate, rich and perhaps more
receptive to innovation and change.
According to Odoemenam (2011), the rural community
is a close unit of generally self sufficient rural group whose extended family
serves not only the function of procreation but also the functions of economic
production, education, recreation, religion, care etc. She believes that rural
dwellers know one another very well and share common experiences and tradition.
Again, Odoemenam (2011) sees urban community as a mass group of people
characterised by large number of people within an urban industrial
environment, influenced by many institutions which perform different functions
of education, religion, economic production etc. Obi and Chukwuemeka (2006:218)
draw a vivid distinction between urban and rural communities in this
table.
Table
1:
Major characteristics of rural and urban areas in Nigeria.
|
S/N
|
Rural Areas
|
Urban Areas
|
|
1
|
Health:
Poorer and
sometimes extreme poverty
|
Richer in wealth
or show greater influence
|
|
2
|
Industry:
Agriculture based
on land.
|
Factories and
various kinds of industries.
|
|
3.
|
Water supply:
Stream water where
it exists, otherwise virtually none. Existing ones stink because of pollution
|
More abundant good
source of water supply for homes and streets (although some taps are now dry)
|
|
4
|
Employment Opportunity:
Farming, mason,
tapping of palm wine, petty trading, tailoring etc.
|
Abundant jobs,
industries, ministries, firms, private business etc.
|
|
5
|
Sanitation and
sewage system:
Inadequate
sanitation and sewage system
|
Better sanitation
and sewage system
|
|
6
|
Electricity:
Virtually non
existent
|
Elaborate
electrification system
|
|
7
|
Communication/transportation:
Inadequate
transportation system mainly bicycles, motorcycles, rejected buses and foot.
No telephone, where they exist difficult to get dialing tones.
|
Adequate
transportation system. Good buses, planes, trains (in some areas with rail
lines), taxis, bicycles, motorcycles and many posh private cars.
|
|
8
|
Education
institution/Schools:
Poor schools with
inadequate facilities and unqualified teachers mainly primary and secondary
schools
|
Richer, better – equipped schools. Have many primary and secondary
schools and even universities and other higher institutions.
|
|
9
|
Social Amenities:
a.
Access
Roads: Poor and dilapidated roads
b.
Recreational
facilities: virtually non-existent. No centres like the stadium, standard
hotels, clubs and cinemas. Where these exist, they will be few in number and
ill – equipped.
|
a.
First
class tarred and clean roads but sometimes (and in fact most times now) not
maintained
b.
Abundant
entertainment centres of first class standard
|
Source: Obi and Chukwuemeka (2006).
In
agreement with the picture in the above table, Kelly (1999) states that some
schools in Zambia, especially in remote areas have no buildings at all,
furniture is also inadequate and, in some cases, the seats and desks are
battered or totally absent. Similarly, U.S. Department of Education in
Pattision and Berkas (2000) regret that shortages of qualified teachers are
most prevalent in high poverty areas. Deductively, remote and high poverty
areas correspond with rural areas.
According to Egwu (2009) and Tyler (1998)
there are significant differences in the management of schools in urban and
rural areas. Fisher (1983) and Ogbodo (2004) see these differences in the
provision of social amenities which undoubtedly affect the quality of
educational facilities. In their own view, Ani (2005) and Strong (2006) see the
difference between rural and urban areas in the provision of educational
materials, adequacy of staff and conducive environment which, they believe,
affect educational achievement. In specific terms, Starr and White (2008)
affirm that schools in rural areas get little support and inadequate personnel
in contrast with their urban counterparts. Again, Ezani (2001), Ani (2007) and
Egwu (2009) report that most schools in rural areas are in a terrible state of
disrepair and lack basic educational facilities.
In contrast with the above, Cruzeiro
and Morgan (2006) and Ogbodo (2004) agree that the situation is different in
urban areas. Urban schools, according to them are better maintained and more
equipped. Children of educational policy makers and highly placed government
officials attend schools in urban areas. These parents show interest and easily
influence the needs of these schools (Wright, 2007).