CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of the Study
Agriculture has been described as
the lifeblood of Africa (United Nations Economic commission for Africa; ECA,
2007). It employs some 70 percent of the workforce and generates, on average,
30 percent of African’s gross domestic production (GDP) (ECA, 2007). Over a
century ago, Nigeria was an agro-economy-based nation. Then Nigeria economy was
sustained through agricultural produce such as cocoa, groundnut, palm produce
etc. the citizens could complain of poverty but not extreme hunger.
The could
be probably because virtually everybody was in one way or the other involved in
agricultural activities/practices. Though the practice appeared crude and
unnecessary energy sapping due to crude implements in use and inadequate
application of modern agricultural practices, innovative skills and facilities.
Agriculture them seemed sustaining because everybody was involved, every body
had interest and it appeared to be everybody’s major source of family
sustenance (Modebelu and Nwakpadohi, 2013). There were less cases of
unemployment due to less interest or carry of white collar jobs. Families were
not complaining of hunger as there were food surplus in most homes. The problem
then was inadequate money to educate young people, procure quality health
faculties and enameled standard of living In line with the developed nations.
To day, the shift of economy to oil as major source of national economy has
actually improved the lots of the nation. There is more money in the nation,
improved quality life among the citizens in terms of enjoyment of amenities
such as electricity, water plant, information and communication network etc.
citizens presently tend to lose interest in agricultural practices because it
is treated as business for the less privileged peasants, never do well etc.
Agricultural science is one of the
core vocational curricular subjects taught at both junior and senior secondary
school in Nigeria . according to the Egbule (2004) defines it a process of
training learners in the process of Agricultural productivity as well as the
techniques for teaching of agriculture. Wikipepdiz (2009) describes agricultural science
education as a broad multidiscihinary field that deals with the selection,
breading and management of crops and domestic animals for economic production.
It is a subject taught in secondary schools as a means for self- radiance and
preparation for further studies Agricultural science is therefore designed for
inculcation of the necessary skills for the practice of agriculture for
effective citizenship and contribution to food security for national
sustainability. That is why the (FRN(1994) outlines the major objectors of
teaching and learning of agricultural science to reflect the
1. Ability
to stimulate students interest in agriculture
2. Ability
to enable students acquire basic knowledge of agriculture
3. Ability
to develop basic agricultural skills in students.
4. Ability
to enable students integrate knowledge with skills in agriculture
5. Ability
to expose students to opportunities in the field of agriculture
6. Ability
to prepare students for further studies in agriculture
7. Ability
to prepare students for occupations in agriculture.
Attainment
of the above objective depends on teachers’ factors and pedagogical approaches
that is agricultural science teachers. Agricultural Science teachers are
trained and groomed for teacher preparation institutions for quality impact of
agricultural skills, knowledge attitudes and values for self- reliance,
promotion of agriculture and food security in their future lives. It is there
fore the duty of this group of teachers to; stimulate and sustain students
interest in agriculture enable students acquire basic knowledge and practical
skill in agriculture enable students integrate knowledge with skills in
Agriculture, prepare and expose students for occupation.
In words of Waliki and
Usman (2009) see teaching as a systematic rational and an organized process of
transmitting knowledge, skills etc in accordance with professional prince . The
implication is that agricultural science teachers who do not perform the act in
accordance with the principled of teaching are therefore not teachers but
cheaters (Modebeh and Nwakpadohu, 2013). Naturally, the out come of teaching is
learning. Learning is an overt product of teaching which the major function of
teacher is learning occurs only where there is relatively positive permanent
change in an individual behaviour. Ihebereme (2010) opined that quality
teaching and learning is a sina –qua non to prudent adherence to quality
approaches. Babahola (2011) reports of some contemporary soft skills that are
imperative in teachers effectiveness in today’s global world. He further argues
that teachers should not only be trained to teach but to become polyvalent by
mastering hard and soft skills that make teachers functional in a rapidly
changing multicultural environment. The implication is that teachers are no
longer trained for student’s certification alone but for effective inculcation
of learning to learn skills. Students should in addition to learning concepts
and theme, must have deep understanding and application of the learning skill
and the same is expected in the teaching and learning of agricultural science
in Nigeria secondary schools. According to obanya (2010) recommends teaching
and learning that resolve around the principle of transformational pedagogy.
Teaching of agricultural science at the secondary school requires a sound
background in theory and practical aspect by the teachers of agriculture. The
delivery of agricultural science subject at the senior secondary level should
not be handles as a science but rather as a vocational subject for acquisition
of practical agricultural skills for meaningful living (Obi, 2005). Martin and
Odubiya (1991) reported that the primary role of agriculture teachers has
always been to help students to learn knowledge and skills in agriculture.
Therefore, Daramola (2005) described an effective teaching as a process where
by professionally trained teachers are employed to instruct learners through
the process of silencing in well-structured and organized settings available within
the school systems. To ensure that effective teaching is achieved in the
secondary school there must be good planning that are adequate for prospers assessment
of science teaching and learning out come (ICSU, 2002). In other words,
teachers must be well prepared for the profession their skills through life
long career learning. In view of Okun Loye (2005) described an effective
science teacher as a person who has been trained pedagogically and acquired a
systematic body of knowledge educational instructions.
Teaching
is a very crucial job, so teachers need to understand a subject enough to
convey its essence to student while traditionally, this has involved leaning on
the part of teacher, new instructional strategies has put the teacher more of
subjects designer, facilitator, and coach and the student more active learner.
The goal for agricultural a sound knowledge base and skill set on which
students will be able to build as they are exposed to life experiences through
the new instructional strategies by the teachers. Good teachers can manipulate
instructional strategies and translate information, good judgment experience
and widom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and
pass to other (Taylor, 1998).
Agricultural
Science plays a crucial role in the development of any nation and has been
recognized. Agriculture science occupies a very important and enviable position
in Nigeria education system. This importance has been realized by government,
parents, the society at large, the teachers and the secondary school student
themselves. Thus, the importance of agricultural science cannot be over
emphasized. The effective teaching and learning of science in the school system
should be accorded priority in any educational system. Resources for teaching
agricultural science could be human (e.g teachers and laboratory assistants),
materials (e.g library, laboratory, teaching aids classrooms, farm, textbooks,
etc), facilities (e.g ruming water, constant electricity supply etc) and other
appropriate resources. There is need to use modern and standard resources for
teaching agricultural science because according to Offormatu (1990) these
enable students to improve on their performances. Effective teaching and
learning of science depend teacher know-how in terms of expertise in content
areas and teaching strategies, availability of teaching aids, recommended
textbooks and other supplementary reading materials, laboratory equipment etc.
Okeke and Inomiesa (1986) found many teachers to be incompetent and Orji (2006)
found strong relationship between teachers know-how and students achievement.
He further found that library materials and science laboratory equipment are
positively related to the performance of students.
1.2 Statement
of the Problem
The
importance of agriculture science in the growth and development of any nation
cannot be over emphasized and it is apparent that agriculture science cannot thrive
without using appropriate instructional teaching strategies to each the
students. This is because future development if any nation in the fields of
agricultural science depends on how well the agricultural science subject is
taught. The deficiencies in Agricultural science teaching range from;
non-coverage of content in schemes of work, non-supervision of instruction,
non-organization of practical lesson, non-organization of extra lesson to cover
lost grounds, non-assossment of learning outcomes regularly, non-application of
improvisation knowledge in instruction to experiences. Again all these tend to
suggest that teachers are to be blamed for the lack of proper exposure of the
agricultural science students which result in poor learning outcomes among the
agricultural science students.
The
major problem of the study is that agricultural science taught at basic and
secondary schools has not been able to transform the citizens and the nation
adequately. The inability to manifest agricultural science practice skills and
indication of interest in choosing agriculture as a career appear to be due to
inadequate learning of the expected skills. It also appear to be due to
inadequate teaching and leaning process on the part of the agricultural science
teachers in Nigeria secondary schools. This is effective teaching brings about
effective learning. According to Myers, Dyer and Washburn, (2005) problems of
beginning teachers include classroom management and student discipline,
balancing work and personal life, managing stress, lack of preparation time at
beginning of school Year, time management and motivating students. Others were decline
with individual differences assessing student work, relationships with parents,
organization of class work, inadequate teaching materials and supplies, and
dealing with problems of individual students (Myers et al 2005; Mundt and
Mundt, 1991; Health-camp and camp, 1990; 1984). Egbule (1998) noted that the
teaching and learning activities of agricultural grossly insufficient to elicit
the desired level of initiative and creativity in students.
1.3 Purpose
of the study.
The general of this study is to determine the
strategies for improving the teaching and learning of agricultural science in
secondary schools in Abakaliki. Local government Area of Ebonyi state. the
specific purposes of the study are; to:
i. determine the teachers attitude work & competence that
can improve the teaching of agricultural
science in secondary school.
ii determine whether methods of teaching are effective steer to your
topic-see eg. Below strategies for improving the teaching and learning of
agricultural science.
iii Identify the available instructional materials steer to your
topic- see eg. Below used in teaching agricultural science subject.
iv Determine whether adequate provision of fund is a strategy
for improving the teaching of Agri Sc.
1.4 Significant
of the study
the study will enable the agricultural science teacher
to realize the importance of strategies of teaching agricultural science in the
students performance and initiative for creativity and self employment. It is
hoped that this study would provide valuable insight to the government, head
teachers of secondary school, learning and learning approach that will improve
agricultural science subject in Abakaliki L.G.A.
The research
work will help to provide the ministry of Education with data on how secondary
school head teachers are implementing the learning of agricultural science
subject in the study area.
1.5 Scope
of the study.
The
study strictly restricted to five secondary school in Abakaliki Urban area of
Ebonyi state. the research work will be carried out on this very topic
strategies for improving the teaching and learning of agricultural science in
secondary school in Abakaliki L.G.A
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE
REVIEW
This
chapter presents a review of related literature under the followings
sub-headings;
1. Concept
and definition of agricultural science education
2. Teaching
and learning of agricultural science
3. Teachers
pedagogical approaches
4 Kearner
centered Method
5. Teaching
strategies in Agricultural science
6. Resource
for teaching agricultural science
7. Elements
of Effective teaching
8. Leaning
strategies and learning styles
9. Learning
models
10 Learning
theories
11 the role of teachers in the practical application of learning
for effective teaching of Agricultural science subjects.
12 Review of related empirical studies
13 summary of reviewed literature
2.1 Concept and definition of Agricultural science education.
Agricultural
science is one of the vocational curricular subjects taught at both junior and
senior secondary schools in Nigeria. Egbule (2004) defines it as a process of
training learning in the process of agricultural productivity as well as the techniques
for teaching of agriculture.
Agricultural
science is a subject taught in secondary schools as a means for self-reliance
and preparation for further studies. It
is therefore designed for inculcation of the necessary skills for the
sustainability. Agricultural science education is the teaching of agriculture,
natural science, and land management through hands on experience and guidance
to prepare students for entry level jobs of to further education to prepare
them for advance agricultural jobs. Agricultural education can be taught at the
elementary level, middle school level, secondary, post secondary and adult
levels. Elementary agriculture is taught in public schools such subjects as how
plants and animals grow and how soil is formed and conserved. Vocational
agriculture trains people for jobs in such areas as production, marketing and
conservation.
According
to FRN (1994) agricultural science teachers are trained and groomed from
teacher preparation institution for quality impact of agriculture for
self-reliance, promotion of agriculture and food security in their future
lives. It is therefore the duty of this group of teachers to; stimulate and
sustain student’s interest in agriculture, enable students acquire basic
knowledge and practical skill in agriculture, enable students integrate
knowledge with skill in agriculture, prepare and expose students for
occupation,
22. Teaching
and learning of Agricultural science
As
agricultural education broadens its scope and mission, educators must recognize
and employ successful and meaning teaching and learning strategies are an
essential element to succeful learning. Agriculture educators must assume new
roles in the classroom and encourage student interaction with their environment
to improve learning and comprehension (Mabie and Baker, (1996). If the teacher
carries out those roles properly, students will accomplish more than they ever
could on their own.
The
education exion that when a learner has not learnt that the teacher has not
taught is true and directly relate to the concepts of teaching and learning as
a process of inculcating the right values attitudes, knowledge, modern life,
long life skill acquisition necessary to make individual benefit from the
society as well as contribute meaningfully to the same society (Waliki and
Uman, 2000). He further see teaching as a systematic, rational and an organized
process of transmitting knowledge, skills etc in accordance with proessional
principles. The implication is that agricultural science teachers who do not
perform the act in accordance with the principles of teaching are therefore not
teachers but cheaters. Naturally, the outcome of teaching is learning. Learning
is an overt product of teaching which the maor function of the teacher is
learning occur only where there is relatively positive permanent change in an
individual behaviour. The implication is that majority of graduates of
secondary education are looming about for white collar jobs that are presently
farfetched and also a prerogatives of the sacred cows of the society because
they have not learnt agricultural lifelong and vocational skills. Agricultural
science teachers have all failed the Nigerian student science their teaching
have not led to student’s learning. Teachers also have their own excuses which
include that students are most often adamant of instruction, students show poor
attitude to agri9cultural science lessons and students come from different home
backgrounds that negate their interest and ability to learning etc.
Another
education axion believes that given equal opportunities to students that every
learner is a potential achiever. The teachers have no excuses for students’
inadequate learning. Effective teaching brings about effective learning.
Therefore, effective teaching and learning refers to the degree to which goals
are achieved through teaching. Effective teaching of agricultural science will
definitely give rise to effective learning of agricultural science that is
attainment of goals of agricultural science. Ability to apply adequate
pedagogical approaches is one way of achieving effective teaching and learning
effective teaching of achieving effective teaching and learning.
2.3 Teacher’s
Pedagogical Approaches
According
to Modebehu and Nwakpadolu, (2013) suggested that teachers are educator and
they knows the right approach to effective teaching and learning. This entails
teachers’ ability to move with trend in teaching method of teacher- centered to
learner- centred methods .
(A) Plan
lesson and write lesson notes
(B) utilized
adequate teaching method per topic.
(D) Utilize
adequate teaching skills
(E) Utilize
adequate teaching
(F) Utilize
adequate instructional aids.
(G) Implement
Chinese axiom
No
wonder Egbule (2004) emphasizes that every agricultural teacher must be
effective, liberally educated, current in subject matter and its pedagogy,
aware of what is expected of teachers and schools, skillful and conscientious
in planning, preparing foe cards students and concern about their welfare,
actively involved in finally professional and community affairs.
2.4 LEARNER
CENTERED METHOD
this is the point of
focus in the teaching and leaning process. Agricultural science students should occupy a
prominent position in the teaching and learning of agricultural science.
Agricultural teacher should therefore make these students centre of all
activities this entails,
a. Encouraging
active participation of agricultural science students in the teaching and
learning process.
b. Agricultural
science students being always actively involved in a manner that they interact
with the teacher with instructional adis
and with the environment .
c. Teaching
and learning of agricultural science that promote students development of basic
life skills
d. Enabling
students to utilize the learnt skills in solving their every day problems using
their own initiatives.
e. Agricultural
science teachers effort to discourage note learning and passitinity in the
class room
In
the words of Modebelu and Durie (2012) a recommend four innovative teaching
method that could enlnanc quality and effective and learning of subject courses.
These methods are
1. information transformation and reception
method.
2. Cognitive
strategies development method
3. Attitudes
development method
4. Cognitive
and motor skill development method .
these
modern method approaches requires combination of methods relevant in clued,
assignment, demonstration, project field- trip, injure experimental etc.
teaching and learning are the.
(i) Qualitative
set induction.
(ii) Qualitative
questioning (lower order middle, higher order and divergent )
(iii) Variation
and variety (instructional aids to that could take care of individual
differences).
(iv) Stimulus
variation (ensuring that students senses are involved).
(v) Repetition
(simple, planned, mass etc).
(vi) Demonstration
(simple, brief and concise
(vii) Closure
(white board summary, written exercise, oral summary etc.
(viii) Adequate
non- verbal communication
ix. Reinforcement (reward and relevant
punishment).
x. effective communication
xi. Supervision
(closed supervision learning processes and activities).
Effective application of these teaching methods,
skills or strategy depends greatly on the teacher ability to plan the lesson
ahead. Ihebereme (2010) posits that quality teaching and learning is a sin aqua
non to prudent adherence to quality indicators in the pedagogical approaches.
Babalola (2011) reports of some contemporary soft skills that are imperative in
teachers, effectiveness in today’s global world. He argues that teachers should
not only be trained to teach but to become polyvalent by mastering hard and
soft skills that make teachers functional in a rapidly changing multicultural
environment. The implication is that teachers are no longer trained for
student’s certification alone but for effective inculcation of learn skills.
Students should in addition to learning concept and theme, must have deep
understanding and application of and application of the learning skills. Same
is expected in the teaching and learning of agricultural science in Nigeria
secondary schools. Obanya (2010) recommends teaching and learning that revalue
around the principles of transformational pedagogy.
The problem is that agricultural science taught at
basic and secondary schools has not been able to transform the citizens and the
nation adequately. Product of secondary education still lack basic vocational
and entrepreneurial skills expected to be acquired from agricultural science.
Product skill wallow about in search of white collar jobs instead of becoming
self reliant and employers of labour. The inability to manifest agricultural
science practice skills and indication of interest in choosing agriculture as a
career appear to be chee to inadequate learning of the expected skills. It also
appear to be due to inadequate teaching and learning process on the part of the
agricultural science teachers in Nigerian secondary schools.
2.5 Teaching Strategies in Agricultural
Science
In offering guidance on teaching and learning, the
vocational learning support programme states that “there are models and
theories to explain how learners learn. In practical terms there is evidence
that there are significance differences in the way that learners approach their
learning and that they can all benefit from experiencing different approaches.
An incisive learning environment is one where the teacher uses a range of
strategies to enable all learners to succeed and fulfil their potential (LSIS
Excellence Gateway, 2011).
Teaching strategies are the tools that teachers have
at their disposal to engage learners and enable learning objectives to be met
via effective teaching and learning while teaching skills and how they select
and use these strategies. Teaching strategies are differentiated from teaching
models by using our definition of a model as the sequence of steps or phases
used to achieve particular types of learning outcomes. The examples of
strategies observed in practice are into three categories that follow the
teaching and learning process. These are; planning and preparation, managing
delivery and assessment. According to Duckett and Tartar Kowski (2005) suggest
that planning effective teaching and learning sessions should include the
following processes. Specifying the aims and objectives or outcomes for the
session how to review the previous session and explaining the links to the
current and next sessions, identifying appropriate content, activities and
strategies by which the learners will learn, identifying strategies by which
learning will be assessed, selecting the resources, materials and media to
support learning and considering how to summaries at the end of the session.
The choice or use of the appropriate model is unfenced by the type of learning
objective and nature of the learners as well as other factors such as teaching
strategies and teaching skills.
(DFES,2004, Haltie ,2009 and marzano, 1998).
2.6 RESOURCE
FOR TEACHING AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE.
Agricultural science occupies a very
important and enviable position in Nigeria education system. This importance
has been realized by government, parents, the society at large, the teachers
and secondary school students themselves . thus, the importance of agricultural
science cannot be over emphasized. The effective teaching and learning of
agricultural science in the school system should be accorded priority in any
education system. The major aim should always be assisting agricultural science
teachers and students to do what is expected of them under preventing
environmental conditions. One of the way of doing this is to critically
scrutinize the resources for teaching agricultural science.
Resources for teaching agricultural
science could b human (eg. Teachers and laboratory assistants ), materials ( eg
library , laboratory, teaching aids, classroom, textbook, marker boards etc)
facilities( eg running water, constant electricity supply etc) and appropriate
demonstrations of what they teaching like make the students to see that with
their naked eyes. There is need to use modern and standard resource for
teaching agricultural science because according to offormatu (1990) these
enable students to improve on their performances.
Effective teaching and learning of
agricultural science depend on teacher known how in terms of expertise in
content areas and teaching strategies, availability of teaching aids, recommended text books and other
supplementary reading materials.
According
to oladeji (1991) in his study found that many secondary schools do not have
enough materials foe teaching basic concepts of agricultural subjects. He other
added that schools that were poorly equipped produced students with poor
performance than those from well equipped schools. Other factors attributed to
this poor performance include shortage of qualified staff( teachers) , lack of
adequate teaching facilities and held teachers students ratio.
2.7 ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
according to Hopkins, (2007)
suggested that there are four of thinking teaching these four components.
Teaching relationship teaching models teaching skill and teacher reflection
were adopted as a way of improving teaching and learning. See below:
Teaching
skill--Teaching models--Teaching relationship
Teaching Relationship
It encompasses both the teachers,
commitments to their learners and the relationships they develop with their
learners. The teachers relationship with their students is of critical
importance to the effectiveness of their teaching and learning. It also covers
the range of roles that a teachers con take within a session and varies between
high structure in which the teachers role is dominant, directing the learning
and low structure in which learners take more control of the process of
learning . it also that means teaching relationship refer to the relationship
teachers develop with students as well as how students relate to each other.
TEACHING
MODELS
Teaching models are derived from theories about teaching and learning.
each model can be described as a structured sequence, which designed to elicit a particular type of thinking or
response to achieve specific learning outcomes the choice and use of the appropriate
model (or combination of models ) is enhanced by the type of learning objective
and nature of the learners as well as other factors such as the repertoire of teaching strategies available and skills of the teacher. A strong
body of research and practice suggests that the quality of teaching and
learning and learners attainments can be enhanced by use of specific models
(DFES, 2004, HaHice, 2009, and marzano, 1998).
TEACHING
SKILLS
This is the tools for teaching and
learning that teachers here available to them . it is also the way in which
teachers select and use the tools at their disposal to achieve effective
learning. It is differentiated from teaching models by using our definition of
a model as phases used to achieve particular types of learning outcomes.
TEACHING
REFLECTION
The fourth component teaching reflection is a three fold process comprising direct
experience analysis of beliefs varies or knowledge about that experience and
consideration of the options which should
lead to action as a result of the analysis (Whiten et al 2004). The teachers
reflects on a particular subject or topic to teach for the learners to
understand him/ her very well.
2.8 Learning strategies and learning styles
The highest level of learning strategy, when the students surmounting
his own cognitive and affective characteristics process the material by
choosing the learning method and means
most suited to the requirements teaching learning and Self- requirements.
Teaching , learning strategies are in separable and parallel variables of the educational process. Their
significance, dominance and mutual effect depends on the educational
objectives, the content specialties of the syllabus, the didactic tasks to be
solved as well as the age group characteristics of the students. The domianaule
of teaching strategies is topical of teacher centered, that of learning
strategies is of student centered situations of education, respectively, while
the self regulated strategy is typical
of independent learning. In the case of teaching learning strategies the
selection of the combination of method. The teacher obviously makes the
selection of the teaching and learning methods mean and form most suited to
processing the syllabus in a way that
contributes to the development of the student self regulated learning strategy
as well
A common feature of theories of
learning style is that students are classified according to their cognitive
characteristics and learning strategies along one or multi- dimerisional
bipolar scales. Teaching strategies which produce the most preferred learning
strategies can also be specified and these in turn serve as a starting point
for designing the learning environment.
2.9 Role
of teachers in the practical application of learning for effective teaching of
Agricultural science .
teaching is a very crucial job, so
teachers need to understand a subject
enough to convert its essence to
students. While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the part of the
teachers more of course designer, facilitator, and coach and the student more
active leaner. The goal of agricultural science is to establish a sound
knowledge base and skill set on which students will be able to lenild as
they are exposed to different life experiences though the new instructional
strategies by the teacher . good teachers can manipulate instructional strategies and translate information good
judgment , experience and misdeem into relevant knowledge that a student can
understand return and pass to others (taylor, 1998).
Will (1998) emphasized also that the
quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting students
achievement, and that countries which score highly on international test have
multiple polices in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as
effective as possible in the use of learning material and must be highly
qualified. The ability of the agricultural science teachers to apply adequate
pedagogical approaches is one way of achieving effective teaching and learning.
This is time because qualified teachers brings about good performance of the
students. The learners heterogeneity to provide alternative units of
instruction and strategies to enable the students attain educational objectives
at thein own rate.
2.10 Learning theories
Learning is to be interpreted in the
former as behavioral, cognitive social etc
change resulting from a particular situation while in the latter as a
process made optimal by taking external conditions into consideration learning
theories are parsimony micro level (describing the results of short term and
elementary activities ) are based on organized hypothesis and death with
learning in general. Teaching is to be considered effective only if the teacher
selects their methods, forms and means (teaching strategies by taking the different characteristic of students into
consideration. Learning strategies and styles most influence on the efficiency
of learning of the students. There are three types of learning , externally
directed learning is the first the acquisition of the cognitive forms of
knowledge, secondly the development of ability by it and thirdly the formation
of attitudes. The objective of learning targeted at acquiring efficient forms
of information acquisition is the preparation of students for independent
learning. The third level is self regulated or meta learning when the student
recognizes how to learn successfully depending on the character of the
curriculum and on subject requirements and to achieve this, he is able to
select the appropriate forms, means and methods of information acquisition.
Though the abilities and acquisition
of individual, characteristics and preference are formed which will have an
influence firstly on learning, secondly on problem solving , thirdly on
professional development and even on career choice.
2.11 LEARNING MODELS
Learning models are mean level
(describing the results of long term activities )and focus in concert terms on
a practical aspect, for example on the characteristics of classroom learning. So learning is interpreted
as aching in associations between images by the representative of associations
psychology, in behaviour by those of
behaviorism in meals processes by those of cognitive in personality development
by those of psychoanalysis and in contrives of the personality by those of
phonology. Therefore learning has an out come and this is change itself.
According to Carroll( 1963) learning
achievement depends on existing knowledge general learning abilities (the
ability of salt- regulated learning ) the degree of comprehension (general
intelligence, verbal skills ) several environmental factors (eg finally,
friends ) the quality of instruction the selection of appropriate methods,
means, how organized the curriculum is ) as well as affective cognitive dispositions
(eg interest motivation , level of standards self image ) learning achievement
is best shown by the pace (seed) and quality ( failure rate ) of learning and
durability of knowledge ( recall ability
mobilization). The efficiency of learning is to be expressed by a ratio where
time allotted to learning is derided by needed for acquisition. The former comprises
the syllabus based classroom time planned by the teacher and the home learning
time of the student, while the latter comprises the quality of in
Saturation
and the time need determined by the talents of the students.
Carols model also developed in his
transactional model time allotted to learning is dependent on the time of
acquiring the material as measured during checking as well as of active
participation in the learning process, together with time spent on the
successful completion of allotted task. According to blooms model learning
achievement is substantially infhenced by four factors, namely the
existing knowledge of the student their
level of motivation the duration of the teaching learning process and the
quality of instruction, time need as a factor appears here, too originating
primarily in the existing knowledge and learning difference o f the individual.
That is why the other three factors are to be selected in such a way as to
ensure the safe acquisition of the material in each and every students case in
other words time allotted to leaning should at least coincide with that needed
for acquisition,. therefore, boom and carols teaching learning model led the
way to the model of mastery learning. The students existing knowledge and
experience play a decisive role in processing new information.
2.12 REVIEW
OF RELATED EMPIRICAL STUDIES
This
will be reviled based on different view
of different authors
According to corny Trumbull and Johnson,
has been both hand on and mind on in intent, design and delivery. In fact Shepardson
(1929) prodaimed that “Agriculture is a meeting ground of the sciences such as
physics and chemistry lie at its base. According to Zilbert and Lest(1989)
agricultural science has always had a strong orientation toward learning by
doing or experiential learning. The learning by doing theory emphasizes in an
agricultural education program offers student the opportunity to utilize
principles learned in class and apply
them in real life situations ( cheek et al 1990)
According to obi (2005) the delivery
of vocational agricultural at the senior secondary level should into be handled
as a science rather as a vocational subject for acquisition of practical
agricultural skills for meaningful living. Agriculture provided the source of
lively hood to well over 70% of the Nigerian population before independence
then child thus obtained on informal education in agricultural though a system
of apprenticeship. Agriculture education refers to acquisition of skill,
attitudes and values that will make the pupils capable of production of
agricultural produce. It provide knowledge and skill that may be directly or
indirectly useful for agricultural activities.
In the word of modebehi and
Nwa-kpadolu (2013) opined that teacher are knows as educators of all levels and
they knows the right approaches to apply for effective teaching and learning.
The effective application of these teaching methods skills or strategy depends greatly on the
teacher ability to plan the lesson ahead. Teaching strategies are the tools
that teaching here at their disposal to engaged learners and enable learning objectives
to be met effective teaching and learning ( DFES 2004 Hahte, 2009 marzano, 1998)
2.23 SUMMARY
OF REVIEWED LITERATURE
agricultural
science is one of the core vocation curricular subjects taught at both Junior
and senior secondary schools in Nigeria. Egbule (2004) defines agricultural science
as process of training learners in the process of agricultural productivity as
well as the teaching for teaching of agricultural . it is
therefore designed for inculcation of necessary skills for the practices
of agriculture for effective citizenship
and contribution to food security for national sustainability.
The teachers are an essential
element to successful learning. Agricultural teachers must assume new roles in
the classroom and encomage student interaction with their environment to improve
learning and comprehension (mabie and baker, 1996) if teaching carries out
their roles properly, student will accomplish more than they ever could on
their own.
The literature review were reviled
based on related literature such as concept and definition of agricultural
science education teaching and learning of agricultural science, teaching
pedagogical approaches, learner centered method teaching strategies in
agricultural science resource for teaching agricultural science element of effective teaching, learning
strategies and learning style, learning theories role of teaching in the practical
application of learning for effective teaching of agricultural science subjects
and review of related empirical studies .