A THEORY AND PRACTICE TO SUPPORT THIS STATEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Some
theories of motivation have focused on what things motivate workers. These are
called content theories because they focus on the content of the
motivators. Although money is the motivator that comes most readily to mind,
some people respond more to other sources of satisfaction. Employee motivation
has always been a central problem for leaders and managers.
Unmotivated
employees are likely to spend little or no effort in their jobs, avoid the
workplace as much as possible, exit the organization if given the opportunity
and produce low quality work. On the other hand, employees who feel motivated
to work are likely to be persistent, creative and productive, turning out high
quality work that they willingly undertake. The reality is that every employee
has different ways to become motivated. Employers need to get to know their
employees very well and use different tactics to motivate each of them based on
their personal wants and needs. The dictionary Webster's defines motivation as
something inside people that drives them to action. This motivation varies in
different people. We can also say that motivation is the willingness to work at
a certain level of effort. Motivation emerges, in current theories, out of
needs, values, goals, intentions, and expectation. Because motivation comes
from within, managers need to cultivate and direct the motivation that their
employees already have. Motivation comes from within us such as thoughts,
beliefs, ambitions, and goals. The people who are most interested in motivation
studies are managers of people because they may provide insights into why
people perform at work as they do, and as a result provide managers with
techniques to improve worker productivity.
MOTIVATION THEORIES
Three
researchers whose content theories of motivation are widely used are Abraham
Maslow, David McClelland, and Frederick Herzberg.
Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs
Psychologist
Abraham Maslow assumed that people are motivated by unmet needs. When a
person’s need for something is not met, the person feels driven, or motivated,
to meet that need. To give a basic example, a person who needs food feels
hungry and therefore eats something.
According
to Maslow’s theory, the needs that motivate people fall into five basic
categories:
1.
Physiological needs are required for
survival: food, water, sex, and shelter.
2.
2. Security needs keep you free from
harm. In modern society, these might include insurance, medical checkups, and a
home in a safe neighborhood.
3.
Social needs include the desire for
love, friendship, and companionship. People seek to satisfy these needs through
the time they spend with family, friends, and co-workers.
4.
Esteem needs are the needs for
self-esteem and the respect of others. Acceptance and praise are two ways these
needs are met.
5. Self-actualization needs describe the desire to live up to your full potential. People on the path to meeting these needs will not only be doing their best at work and at home but also be developing mentally, spiritually, and physically.
5. Self-actualization needs describe the desire to live up to your full potential. People on the path to meeting these needs will not only be doing their best at work and at home but also be developing mentally, spiritually, and physically.
Maslow
argues that these needs are organized into a hierarchy (see Figure 11.2). The
most basic needs are at the bottom of the hierarchy. People try to satisfy
these needs first. At the top of the hierarchy are the needs people try to
satisfy only when they have met most of their other needs. However, people may
be seeking to meet more than one category of needs at a time.
According to this view, people tend to rely on their jobs
to meet most of their physiological and security needs through paychecks and
benefits such as health insurance. Needs higher on the hierarchy can be
satisfied in many places. For example, people satisfy some of their social
needs through their relationships with family and friends outside work, and
they may seek to meet their selfactualization needs through volunteer work or
membership in a religious organization. Nevertheless, people can also satisfy higher-level
needs in the workplace. An employee who is applauded for solving a difficult
problem or who takes pride in skillfully performing a craft such as carpentry
is meeting some higher-level needs at work.
Greater
interest in Corporate Social Responsibility at many organizations, coupled with
many employees’ enthusiasm for serving the community, has led some firms to
meet employees’ higher-level needs with organized opportunities to do good. For
instance, Boston Consulting Group lets employees spend up to a year working for
a nonprofit organization, with their pay subsidized by BCG. Today’s young
workers have a reputation for being especially motivated to serve. Applications
to AmeriCorps, which arranges for young people to serve nonprofits around the United
States, have been soaring over the past few years. Of course, meaningful work
can also take place within businesses, and companies also see young employees’
desire to make a difference. Marriott International motivates by offering a
management training program in which employees tackle assignments in all facets
of hotel operations. When Claire Pignataro graduated from college, she was
delighted to take a job with Marriott, not so much for the pay, but because the
company would let her do something she loves: planning social and corporate
events at one of its hotels.
Maslow’s
hierarchy is a widely cited view of motivation, but it has shortcomings.
Critics (including Maslow himself) have noted that the theory is based on
clinical work with neurotic patients and was not tested much for Relevance to
the work setting. Are the needs identified by Maslow really all-inclusive? Do
they describe people of many cultures, or just the majority of U.S. workers?
The lack of studies investigating the hierarchy of needs makes it impossible to
answer such questions with certainty. However, the popularity of Maslow’s
theory implies that it can be helpful in offering suggestions about what
motivates people.
Applied
to a work situation, Maslow’s theory means the supervisor must be aware of the
current needs of particular employees. During a serious recession, a factory
supervisor may find that many employees are highly motivated just to keep their
jobs so they can pay their bills. In contrast, employees who are less worried about
keeping a job may respond well to efforts to meet social needs. At Wyndham
International, when David Mussa became vice president, employees rarely stayed
long, so he took the time to discuss work with small groups of employees. Mussa
had thought that the problem would be money to meet physiological needs.
Instead, he learned that the problem was esteem needs. Many of the employees
felt the company did not value them, mainly because they rarely received
feedback or coaching to help them do their job better. They wanted their
supervisors to be more involved and show that they cared. So Mussa hired more
supervisors, giving each one more time to spend coaching employees—in fact,
supervisors were required to do so.
In
this era of increasing numbers of single parents and two-income families in the
workforce, a practical concern of many employees is their need for flexibility
in their work hours to balance the demands of home and work. Some organizations
have responded with “family-friendly” policies, which typically include
flexible work arrangements such as the following:
• Flextime—This policy grants employees some leeway in choosing which
8 hours a day or which 40 hours a week to work.
•
Part-time work — For
employees who can afford to work less than full time, this option frees them to
spend more time meeting other needs. It is economically appealing to
organizations because few offer a full range of benefits to parttime employees.
• Job sharing — To create part-time jobs, two employees share the duties
of a single position.
• Telecommuting — Some employees can and want to work from home, keeping in
touch by means of computer and telephone lines.
Recent surveys have found flexible
work arrangements at almost three-fourths of companies, with flextime available
at more than half. Other family-friendly benefits include referral services to
help workers find day care for their children or elder care for aging parents. However,
some employees have seen these policies as benefiting certain employees at the
expense of others. To learn how some firms are responding to this concern, see
the “Supervision and Ethics” box.
McClelland’s
Achievement-Power-Affiliation Theory
In the 1960s, David McClelland
developed a theory of motivation based on the assumption that through their
life experiences, people develop various needs. His theory focuses on three
such needs:
1.
The need
for achievement—the desire to do something better
than it has been done before.
2.
The need
for power—the desire to control, influence,
or be responsible for other people.
3.
The need
for affiliation—the desire to maintain close and
friendly personal relationships.
According
to McClelland, people have all these needs to some extent. However, the
intensity of the needs varies from one individual to the next. The nature of a
person’s early life experiences may cause one of these needs to be particularly
strong.
The
relative strength of the needs influences what will motivate a person. A person
with a strong need for achievement is more motivated by success than by money.
This person tends to set challenging but achievable goals and to assess risk
carefully. Someone with a strong need for power tries to influence others and
seeks out advancement and responsibility. A person with a strong need for
affiliation gives ambition a back seat in exchange for approval and acceptance.
At IBS, which distributes tools, supplies, and components for manufacturers,
managers believe the company’s small size allows them to be flexible in meeting
employees’ needs. Michelle St. John, IBS’s operations manager, says, “We allow
employees to take time for what they need and make it up later.” St. John, like
many human resources experts, sees family-friendly policies as an important way
to get and keep the best workers. Recent surveys have found flexible work
arrangements at almost three-fourths of companies, with flextime available at
more than half. Other family-friendly benefits include referral services to
help workers find day care for their children or elder care for aging parents.
However, some employees have seen these policies as benefiting certain
employees at the expense of others. To learn how some firms are responding to
this concern, see the “Supervision and Ethics” box. McClelland’s
Achievement-Power-Affiliation Theory In the 1960s, David McClelland developed a
theory of motivation based on the assumption that through their life
experiences, people develop various needs. His theory focuses on three such
needs:
1. The need for achievement—the
desire to do something better than it has been done before.
2. The need for power—the desire to
control, influence, or be responsible for other people.
3. The need for affiliation—the
desire to maintain close and friendly personal relationships. According to
McClelland, people have all these needs to some extent.
However,
the intensity of the needs varies from one individual to the next. The nature
of a person’s early life experiences may cause one of these needs to be
particularly strong. The relative strength of the needs influences what will
motivate a person. A person with a strong need for achievement is more
motivated by success than by money. This person tends to set challenging but
achievable goals and to assess risk carefully. Someone with a strong need for
power tries to influence others and seeks out advancement and responsibility. A
person with a strong need for affiliation gives ambition a back seat in
exchange for approval and acceptance.
This
theory offers a way to understand the behavior of the salespeople at a
Westinghouse sales office. The manager in charge of that office told his 16
employees that he would buy and cook lunch for them if they met their sales
goals. In the following 19 months, they exceeded their quotas 18 times. That
exceptional performance made such an impression on headquarters that the
company offered to pay for the meals. The manager declined reimbursement,
however. Despite the widespread assumption that salespeople are motivated by
money, the manager saw a need for affiliation: The staff members enjoyed their
boss’s personal attention as he bought and grilled steaks for them to share.
Changing this interaction into a corporate reward program would remove its
motivational power. Similarly, Pfizer inspired its older, more experienced
sales reps by bringing them together into peer groups that competed with one
another and coached the pharmaceutical company’s younger representatives. The
veteran salespeople, whose performance had declined as they increasingly felt
isolated, improved when they began to enjoy stronger relationships with one
another and a clearer role with respect to their younger colleagues.
McClelland’s
theory differs from Maslow’s in that it assumes different people have different
patterns of needs, whereas Maslow’s theory assumes the same pattern of needs
for all people. Thus, McClelland considers individual differences.
Both
theories, however, imply that supervisors must remember that employees are
motivated by a variety of possibilities.
Herzberg’s
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick
Herzberg’s research led to the conclusion that employee satisfaction and
dissatisfaction stem from different sources. According to this Two-factor
theory, dissatisfaction results from the absence of what Herzberg calls hygiene
factors, which include salary and relationships with others. For example,
someone whose pay is poor (e.g., a physical therapist earning $5,000 less than
the average pay for the position) is going to be dissatisfied with the job. In
contrast, satisfaction results from the presence of what Herzberg calls motivating
factors, which include opportunities offered by the job. Thus, an employee
who sees a chance for promotion is likely to be more satisfied with the current
job than one who does not.
Herzberg
found that employees are most productive when the organization provides a
combination of desirable hygiene factors and motivating factors. According to
this theory, an organization cannot ensure that its employees will be satisfied
and productive simply by giving them a big pay raise every year. Employees also
need motivating factors such as the ability to learn new skills and assume
responsibility. Like the other content theories, Herzberg’s theory tells
supervisors that they need to consider a variety of ways to motivate employees.
Most
of these motivation theories have one element in common: Supervisors must
consider individual differences in designing rewards. What motivates one person
may not motivate another, so supervisors need to offer a variety of rewards. At
the same time, to avoid discrimination, employers must distribute benefits
fairly.
The
types of rewards a supervisor may use are not entirely under his or her
control. Not only does a supervisor have to follow the organization’s policies,
but he or she must also obey a variety of laws requiring that employers provide
certain types of benefits. For example, federal laws set requirements for
overtime pay, rest breaks, health insurance for retirees, and many other areas.
Most organizations have a human resources professional or department responsible
for helping the organization comply with laws related to benefits. The details
of these laws are beyond the scope of this book.
However,
the requirements of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 are worth noting
because they affect the supervisor’s role in scheduling work and staffing the
department. Under this law, organizations with 50 or more employees within a
75-mile radius must give employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave to care for a
newborn, adopted, or foster child within one year of the child’s arrival. These
employers also must offer this time off if employees need to care for a
seriously ill child, parent, or spouse or if they themselves have medical
conditions that prevent them from doing their jobs. During the time off, the
employer must continue to pay the employee’s health insurance premiums. The
employer also must guarantee that the employee will be able to return to his or
her job or an equivalent one. If the need for the leave is foreseeable, the
employee must give the organization 30 days’ notice.
In
some organizations, the supervisor faces a significant challenge in planning
and scheduling because of employees’ leave. A recent survey by the Society for
Human Resource Management found that about one-third of the workforces of the
surveyed companies had requested medical leave during the preceding year, and
one-sixth had requested family leave. A leave can make it challenging to
motivate the employees who shoulder the extra work. About one-third of the
companies in the same survey reported employees had complained that co-workers
took leave for reasons the complainers found questionable.
MONEY AS A MOTIVATOR
The
content theories of motivation imply that money motivates people when it meets
their needs. Recently, the federal minimum wage rose to $6.55 per hour. For a
worker with at least two dependents, this rate of pay would not keep the
household above the poverty level, so a minimum-wage job might motivate such
employees to work overtime whenever possible, look for a second job, or seek
training, promotions, or some other route to better pay. In contrast, a high
school student might welcome the steady income stream from a minimum-wage job.
The opportunity to earn more can be very important to a college student,
considering the high cost of college tuition and the potentially great impact
of a college degree on the student’s future lifestyle. A retired person or a
married person whose spouse earns a comfortable income might work primarily for
nonfinancial rewards such as a sense of accomplishment or the satisfaction
derived from performing a needed service.
If
money is to work as a motivator, employees must believe they are able to
achieve the financial rewards the organization offers. Thus, if a theater
company offers its staff a bonus for selling a given number of season ticket
subscriptions over the telephone, the bonus will motivate the employees only if
they believe they can sell that many tickets. Or if an organization pays a
bonus for employee suggestions that improve quality, the bonus will motivate
employees only if they believe they are capable of coming up with ideas.
PAY PLANS USING FINANCIAL INCENTIVES
The
way a pay plan is structured can influence the degree to which employees are
motivated to perform well. Some pay plans offer bonuses, commissions, or other
kinds of pay for meeting or exceeding objectives. For instance, a growing
number of organizations tie raises and bonuses to success in retaining existing
customers and meeting established quality goals (see Figure 11.5). Others pay
employees a higher rate for learning additional skills, including how to
operate lift trucks and computer-controlled machinery or how to develop
computer applications to do business globally. Such pay plans are said to use financial
incentives.A recent survey found that more than 10 cents out of every
payroll dollar went to some form of variable pay.
Supervisors
rarely have much say in the type of pay plan an organization uses. However,
they can motivate better if they understand the kinds of pay plans that offer a
financial incentive. Knowing whether the organization’s pay system is designed
to motivate gives a supervisor clues about the needs of employees for
nonfinancial incentives. If the organization’s pay plan includes financial
incentives but the employees remain unmotivated, a supervisor might look for
other kinds of motivators. On the other hand, if the organization’s pay plan
contains no financial incentives, a supervisor might seek permission to include
money for bonuses in the department’s budget.
Piecework System
The
piecework system pays people
according to how much they produce. This method is often used to pay
independent contractors, that is, people who are selfemployed and perform work
for the organization. For example, a magazine might pay a writer a fixed rate
for each word, or a clothing manufacturer might pay a seamster a set amount for
each shirt sewed. Farm workers may be paid according to how much they harvest.
Unlike independent contractors, however, few employees are paid under this
system.
Production Bonus System
Production
department employees may receive a basic wage or salary plus a bonus that
consists of a payment for each unit produced. Thus, an employee might earn
$8.50 or more an hour plus $0.20 for each unit produced. This is called a
production bonus system. If employees do not appear to be motivated by a
production bonus system, the bonus may not be large enough to be worth the
extra effort. Employees who work faster earn more money under such a system,
but the pay system does not necessarily encourage high-quality work.
There
are other types of bonus as well, such as bonuses paid for recommending new
employees, delivering exceptional service, or meeting performance targets. Saga
Software, an enterprise software developer based in Reston, Virginia, gives out
nearly $300,000 in on-the-spot performance bonuses. Nearly half the firm’s 800
employees earned between $500 and $5,000 in one recent year; if they chose to
defer all or part of the bonus, the firm marked the award up by 50 percent.
Commissions
In
a sales department, employees may earn commissions, or payment linked to
the amount of sales completed. For example, a real estate agent listed a house
for a brokerage. Upon the sale of the house, the agent might receive a commission
of 2 percent of the sale price. The selling agent and the brokerage also would
get commissions.
Although
commissions are most commonly paid to salespeople, companies have applied this
type of pay to other positions where the company charges a client for the work
the employee completes. At Pinard’s Small Engine Repair, a shop located in
Manchester, New Hampshire, service technicians receive a commission based on
the amount billed for their work. The technicians keep track of the time they
spend on billable work. Employees who spend at least half of their time doing
billable repairs earn a commission of at least 4 percent of the amount billed
for their work. Technicians can earn higher percentages for spending more of
their time on billable work. A technician who spends at least 80 percent of his
or her time on billable hours will earn a commission of 7 percent—a much larger
commission, considering that the amount billed is also likely to be greater.
Thus, the pay system encourages technicians at Pinard’s to work more
efficiently. The shop supports this arrangement by setting up work arrangements
so that technicians are free to concentrate on repairs, rather than helping out
in the store or answering phones.
Most
organizations that pay commissions also pay a basic wage or salary. Otherwise,
the financial uncertainty can worry employees to the point that it interferes
with motivation. Some people, however, like the unlimited earnings potential of
a commission-only job.
Payments for Suggestions
To
build employee participation and communication, many companies pay employees
for making suggestions on how to cut costs or improve quality. Typically, the
suggestion must be adopted or save some minimum amount of money before the
employee receives payment. The size of the payment may be linked to the size of
the benefit to the organization. In other words, an idea with a bigger impact
results in a bigger payment.
Group Incentive Plans
Organizations
today are focusing increasingly on ways to get employees and their supervisors
to work together as teams. Afinancial incentive to get people to work this way
is the group incentive plan, which pays a bonus when the group as a
whole exceeds some objective.An organization measures the performance of a work
unit against its objectives, and then pays a bonus if the group exceeds the
objectives. At Continental Airlines, every employee receives at least $65 in
cash for each month that the airline ranks among the top three in on-time
performance as rated by the U.S. Transportation Department or completes at
least 80 percent of its flights on schedule. For every month that Continental
ranks first, the bonus rises to $100 each.
A
frequently used type of group incentive is the profit-sharing plan.
Under this kind of plan, the company sets aside a share of its profits earned
during a given period, such as a year, and divides these profits among the
employees.The assumption is that the better the work done, the more the company
will earn and, therefore, the bigger the bonuses. In the past, profit sharing
was limited chiefly to executives, but more companies today are sharing profits
among all employees.
InterDyn
Cargas, which sells business software and consulting services, uses a
profit-sharing plan as a way to keep employees focused on team success rather
than individual performance alone. One-fifth of InterDyn’s profits are set
aside and divided among employees every six months, with somewhat more
allocated to employees who have been at the company longer.
An
increasing number of companies are adopting a gain sharing program, under which the company encourages employees
to participate in making suggestions and decisions about improving the way the
company or work group operates. As performance improves, employees receive a
share of the greater earnings. Thus, gainsharing seeks to motivate not only by
giving financial rewards but also by making employees feel they have an
important role as part of a team.
WAGE AND SALARY INFORMATION
In
our society, money is considered a private matter, and most people do not like
to talk about what they earn. Thus, in private (nongovernment) organizations,
employees generally do not know one another’s earnings, though supervisors know
what their subordinates earn. In contrast, government employees’ earnings are
public information, often published in local papers, because taxpayers
ultimately pay their wages and salaries.
Does
secrecy help or hurt the usefulness of money as a motivator? Certainly, it does
not make sense to disclose information if it only embarrasses employees. Most
employees overestimate what others earn. This overestimation can result in
dissatisfaction because employees believe they are underpaid in comparison.
To
motivate employees with the possibility of a raise and a belief that pay rates
are fair, the organization must let them know what they can hope to earn. A
typical compromise between maintaining privacy and sharing information is for
the organization to publish pay ranges. These show the lowest and highest wage
or salary the organization will pay an employee in a particular position.
Employees do not know how much specific individuals earn, but the ranges show
what they can expect to earn if they get a raise, promotion, or transfer to
another position.
THEORY Z
In
observing the behavior of managers, Douglas McGregor noted that many tend to
have a group of attitudes that reflect their beliefs about workers and the
workplace. He termed this set of attitudes Theory X. To summarize, a
Theory X manager assumes that people dislike work and try to avoid it, that
they therefore must be coerced to perform, that they wish to avoid
responsibility and would prefer to be directed, and that their primary need is
for security. Not surprisingly, these beliefs influence how supervisors and
other managers behave. Theory X supervisor would adopt an autocratic leadership
role, keeping a close eye on employees and looking for occasions when they need
to be disciplined to keep them performing adequately.
McGregor
advises that managers can benefit from adopting a much different set of
attitudes, which he terms Theory Y. According to Theory Y, working is as
natural an activity as resting or playing, and people will work hard to achieve
objectives to which they are committed. They can learn to seek responsibility
and to be creative in solving organizational problems. Supervisors and other
managers who adhere to Theory Y focus on developing the potential of their
employees. Their style of leadership tends to be democratic. Table 11.2
summarizes these two sets of assumptions.
Today,
a common view among people studying management is that Theory Y is appropriate
for many situations. To see what a Theory Y manager looks like, consider Don T.
Davis, who manages the Beverly Hills, California, branch of Smith Barney, a
brokerage division of Citigroup. Davis focuses on providing the office’s 85
financial consultants with the resources they need to serve their clients.
Explains Davis, “I’ve been around here a longtime”. I’m able to call someone
[at Citigroup] and say, ‘I need you to help me out here.’” Every day, Davis
takes several walks around the brokerage offices, making him available to the
financial consultants in case they have problems or need encouragement. He
often accompanies them on calls to prospects so he can better coach them in
sales and teamwork. He also identifies situations in which he can help
employees by pairing them with those who have expertise in products the client
needs. In one situation, a financial consultant was having difficulty getting a
new client set up, so Davis arranged for this major prospect to travel to New
York and meet experts at Citicorp. The trip smoothed the process for the
financial consultant, who has since been able to set up services for that
client.
In
the 1980s, management experts extended their view of managing and leading to
include Theory Z. Theory Z supervisors seek to involve employees in
making decisions, consider long-term goals when making plans, and give
employees relatively great freedom in carrying out their duties. This theory is
based on comparisons of management styles in the United States and Japan. It
assumes that whereas Japanese workers are more productive than their U.S.
counterparts, the difference stems in part from different management styles.
Thus, Theory Z was developed in an attempt to adapt some Japanese management
practices to the U.S. workplace. The Japanese practices include employee
Involvement and lifetime employment.
JOB ENRICHMENT
When
employees find their work interesting, they are more likely to give it their
full attention and enthusiasm. In general, work is interesting when it has
variety and allows employees some control over what they do. Work can be made
more interesting through Job Rotation, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, and
increased customer contact.
Job rotation involves moving employees from job to job to give them more
variety. For example, the employees in a production department may take turns
operating all the machines in the factory. Job rotation requires that employees
have relatively broad skills. As a result, the supervisor or company must
provide for cross-training, or training in the skills required to
perform more than one job. The opportunity to learn new skills through
cross-training can in itself motivate employees.
Job enlargement is an effort to make a job more interesting by adding more
duties to it. Thus, a machine operator might be responsible not only for
running a particular machine but also for performing maintenance on the machine
and inspecting the quality of the parts produced with the machine. As with job
rotation, this approach assumes that variety in a job makes it more satisfying,
with the result that employees are more motivated.
Job enrichment is the incorporation of motivating factors into a job. Herzberg
called the factors that enrich a job “motivators.” Generally, an enriched job
gives employees more responsibility to make decisions and more recognition for
good performance. Thus, enriched jobs are more challenging and, presumably,
more rewarding. For example, instead of requiring salespeople in a department
store to call a supervisor whenever a customer has a complaint, the store might
authorize them to handle complaints as they see fit. They would have to call a
supervisor only if solving the problem would cost the store more than some
(high) set amount.
When
modifying jobs to make them more interesting, the organization and supervisor
must remember that not all employees are motivated by the same things at the
same time. Thus, while some employees may eagerly accept the new variety in
their jobs, others are likely to be less enthusiastic. Some workers may think
jobs are being redesigned simply to get more work out of people for the same
amount of money. A supervisor must be careful to emphasize the advantages of
the new arrangement and listen to employee reactions.
Work also can be made more
meaningful by giving employees some contact with the people who receive and use
their products (goods or services). Nurses and salespeople are routinely in
contact with the people they serve, but production workers and accounting
personnel have less customer contact. Sometimes a supervisor can arrange to
have workers visit the users of the products. For example,a group of production
workers might be sent to visit a customer who is having trouble operating a
machine the company manufactures. The workers not only would be able to help
the customer but might also get some ideas for making the machine better.
Accounting personnel might meet the people in the company who use their reports
to make sure they understand and are satisfied with the reports.
PYGMALION EFFECT
Effective
motivation can lead to performance beyond employees’ own expectations of
themselves. When someone expects a lot of us, we often find that we can do a
lot. When little is expected, we tend to provide little. In either case, the
expectations are self-fulfilling.
The
direct relationship between expectations and performance is known as the Pygmalion
effect. The name comes from the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a king of Cyprus
who carved a statue of a beautiful maiden and then fell in love with her. He so
wished she were real that she became real.
According
to the Pygmalion effect, a supervisor who says to an employee, “You’re so
dense, you never get the procedures right,” will not motivate effectively.
Instead, the employee will decide that understanding procedures is beyond his
or her capacity. Therefore, a supervisor who wishes employees to set high
standards for themselves must think and speak with the assumption that the
employees are capable of meeting high standards. A supervisor might say, “These
procedures are complicated, but I’m sure that if you study them regularly and
ask questions, you can learn to follow them.”
An
individual who recognizes the value of high expectations is minor-league
baseball player Alex Gordon. When the Kansas City Royals selected him in 2005,
he became the number two pick in that year’s draft, and expectations for his
baseball career soared. Gordon’s reaction? As he prepared for the start of a
game, playing with the Wichita Wranglers Class AAteam, he told a reporter, “I
actually liked the expectations. It gives me that little bit more motivation to
do well.”
EMPLOYEE INCENTIVE IDEAS
The
content theories of motivation indicate that a variety of rewards may motivate
but that not all employees will value the same rewards at the same time. The
supervisor’s challenge is to determine what rewards will work for particular
employees at particular times. This means appreciating the needs people are
trying to meet and the variety of ways a supervisor can provide rewards.
An
attractive award motivates employees in and of itself, but supervisors and
other managers can add to the attraction by making the experience of receiving
the award pleasant, too. At Hormel Foods in Rochester, Minnesota, receiving
annual profit-sharing checks is part of a late-year celebration. The company
serves milk and cookies and passes out the checks in what plant manager Mark
Coffey calls a “fun and festive day.” Production supervisor Bill Hacker agrees
that the check distribution time in November is “always a happy day around
here.”Supervisors at any company that distributes group incentives could add to
their motivational value by contributing to a positive mood at those times.
Of
course, there are some limits to a supervisor’s discretion in giving rewards.
Company policy or a union contract may dictate the size of raises employees get
and the degree to which raises are linked to performance as opposed to seniority
or some other measure. However, supervisors can use the theories of motivation,
coupled with their own experience, to identify the kinds of rewards over which
they have some control. For example, a supervisor has great freedom in
administering rewards such as praise and recognition. Many supervisors have
some discretion in job assignments. Employees who have a high need for
achievement (McClelland’s theory) or are trying to meet esteem or
self-actualization needs (Maslow’s theory) may appreciate opportunities for
additional training. Employees who have a high need for affiliation or are
seeking to meet social needs may appreciate being assigned to jobs in which
they work with other people.
PERFORMANCE BASED REWARDS
The
rewards a supervisor uses should be linked to employee performance.
Unfortunately, employees seldom see a clear link between good job performance
and higher pay. If there is a connection, employees should be aware of it and
understand it. Another means of connecting rewards to performance is in the way
supervisors express praise. “Tips from the Firing Line” suggests a way to offer
performance-related praise. Linking rewards to the achievement of realistic
objectives is a way to help employees believe they can attain desired rewards.
As Vroom’s expectancy–valence theory described, rewards are most likely to
motivate employees when the employees view them as achievable.
At
Great Scott Broadcasting, an independent broadcasting company in Pottstown,
Pennsylvania, sales reps for the company’s eight radio stations in Maryland and
Delaware must be knowledgeable about audience demographics, marketing protocol,
and other key information about selling radio spots. With a game called Trivia
Feud, general manager Cathy Deighan ensures that the reps have the information
they need to answer clients’ questions quickly and accurately. The competitive
15-minute game is played at every weekly sales meeting— “It can get pretty
crazy,” says Deighan—and each person on the winning team gets a prize, such as
a gift certificate for dinner, a free car wash, or cash.
The
use of objectives is a basic way to link rewards to performance. For example,
the Management by Objectives (MBO) system provides rewards when employees meet
or exceed the objectives they have helped set for themselves. Thus, if a
museum’s cafeteria workers are supposed to leave their work areas spotless at
the end of each shift, they know whether they have done what is necessary to
receive their rewards, such as regular pay raises or extra time off.
Using
clear objectives to help motivate employees is an important way to make sure
that when employees try hard, they are trying to do the right things.
Rackspace, a Web-hosting service based in San Antonio, Texas, links rewards to
its goal of delivering “fanatical” customer support. The company is divided
into teams that bring together employees from various functions, including
account management and tech support. Each team is responsible for meeting its
own set of financial and service goals, including customer turnover, growth in
existing customers’ business with Rackspace, and number of referrals from
customers. Each month, if teams meet their goals, team members receive bonuses
in amounts up to 20 percent of their salaries. Customer praise gets posted on
the walls, and individuals receive recognition through the monthly Straitjacket
Award; employees grant this award by voting for the employee whose customer
support was most fanatical.
STRATEGIES
OF MOTIVATING WORKERS
Bernard
in Stoner, et al. (1995) accords due recognition to the needs of workers saying
that, "the ultimate test of organizational success is its ability to
create values sufficient to compensate for the burdens imposed upon resources
contributed." Bernard looks at workers, in particular librarians, in an
organized endeavour, putting in time and efforts for personal, economic, and
non-economic satisfaction.In this era of the information superhighway,
employers of information professionals or librarians must be careful to meet
their needs. Otherwise, they will discover they are losing their talented and
creative professionals to other organizations who are ready and willing to meet
their needs and demands. The question here is what strategies can be used to
motivate information professionals, particularly librarians? The following are
strategies:
Salary,
Wages and Conditions of Service:
To use salaries as a motivator effectively, personnel managers must consider
four major components of a salary structures. These are the job rate, which
relates to the importance the organization attaches to each job; payment, which
encourages workers or groups by rewarding them according to their performance;
personal or special allowances, associated with factors such as scarcity of
particular skills or certain categories of information professionals or
librarians, or with long service; and fringe benefits such as holidays with
pay, pensions, and so on. It is also important to ensure that the prevailing
pay in other library or information establishments is taken into consideration
in determining the pay structure of their organization.
Money: Akintoye (2000) asserts that money remains the most
significant motivational strategy. As far back as 1911, Frederick Taylor and
his scientific management associate described money as the most important
factor in motivating the industrial workers to achieve greater productivity.
Taylor advocated the establishment of incentive wage systems as a means of
stimulating workers to higher performance, commitment, and eventually satisfaction.
Money possesses significant motivating power in as much as it symbolizes
intangible goals like security, power, prestige, and a feeling of
accomplishment and success. Katz, in Sinclair, et al. (2005) demonstrates the
motivational power of money through the process of job choice. He explains that
money has the power to attract, retain, and motivate individuals towards higher
performance. For instance, if a librarian or information professional has
another job offer which has identical job characteristics with his current job,
but greater financial reward, that worker would in all probability be motivated
to accept the new job offer. Banjoko (1996) states that many managers use money
to reward or punish workers. This is done through the process of rewarding
employees for higher productivity by instilling fear of loss of job (e.g.,
premature retirement due to poor performance). The desire to be promoted and
earn enhanced pay may also motivate employees.
Staff
Training:
No matter how automated an organization or a library may be, high productivity
depends on the level of motivation and the effectiveness of the workforce.
Staff training is an indispensable strategy for motivating workers. The library
organization must have good training programme. This will give the librarian or
information professional opportunities for self-improvement and development to
meet the challenges and requirements of new equipment and new techniques of
performing a task.
Information
Availability and Communication:
One way managers can stimulate motivation is to give relevant information on
the consequences of their actions on others (Olajide, 2000). To this researcher
it seems that there is no known organization in which people do not usually
feel there should be improvement in the way departments communicate, cooperate,
and collaborate with one another. Information availability brings to bear a
powerful peer pressure, where two or more people running together will run
faster than when running alone or running without awareness of the pace of the
other runners. By sharing information, subordinates compete with one another.
Studies
on work motivation seem to confirm that it improves workers' performance and
satisfaction. For example, Brown and Shepherd (1997) examine the characteristics
of the work of teacher-librarians in four major categories: knowledge base,
technical skills, values, and beliefs. He reports that they will succeed in
meeting this challenge only if they are motivated by deeply-held values and
beliefs regarding the development of a shared vision. Vinokur, Jayarantne, and
Chess (1994) examine agency-influenced work and employment conditions, and
assess their impact on social workers' job satisfaction. Some motivational
issues were salary, fringe benefits, job security, physical surroundings, and
safety. Certain environmental and motivational factors are predictors of job
satisfaction. While Colvin (1998) shows that financial incentives will get
people to do more of what they are doing, Silverthrone (1996) investigates motivation
and managerial styles in the private and public sector. The results indicate
that there is a little difference between the motivational needs of public and
private sector employees, managers, and non-managers.
TIPS
FROM THE FIRING LINE
EXPRESSING SINCERE APPRECIATION
Johanna
Rothman helps project teams of information technology experts learn to work
together effectively. As team leader and consultant, she has found that vague
expressions of praise are much less effective than specific, personal statements.
Rothman recommends that groups use a format she calls “appreciations.” Here is
Rothman’s formula for an appreciation:
I appreciate you, [name], for
[specific action]. [That action] [tell the action’s effect on you or the
group].
According to Rothman, the
second part of an appreciation may feel awkward to say, but it is the part that
really motivates people to continue the desired behavior.
Rothman illustrates her
formula with several examples, including the following two (edited):
I appreciate you, Ron, for
thinking about the project and testing intelligently. I’ve worked with testers
who didn’t know about our projects and didn’t have the benefits I wanted from
the testing. You found things I didn’t know I’d put into the software code.
I appreciate you, Dawn, for
reviewing my first draft of the project architecture so quickly. Because you
reviewed it quickly, I had time to reorganize it, and our customers really like
the way the product is organized now.
TREATING EMPLOYEES FAIRLY
Most
of the theories of motivation emphasize that different things motivate
individuals to different degrees. A supervisor who wishes to succeed at
motivating has to remember that employees will respond in varying ways. A
supervisor cannot expect that everyone will be excited equally about
cross-training or overtime pay. Some employees might prefer an easy job or
short hours, so that they have time and energy for outside activities. Even
employees in a particular group, such as part-time workers, can have different
preferences For example, some parttimers may prefer the shorter hours, while
others took part-time jobs hoping they would be a steppingstone to a full-time
position. Among those who prefer parttime, some may see the job as a way to pay
the bills while freeing time for other roles, such as artist, actor, or parent.
In contrast, students working part-time may be eager to apply lessons from
school on the job and begin developing a career through the part-time work.
Effective supervisors not only respect these differences but also find ways
these diverse employees can contribute—say, giving students challenging
assignments to develop their skills, noticing when the artist’s unique
perspective contributes important ideas, and recognizing that parenting
responsibilities change so that these part-timers may be looking for greater
responsibility at work in the future.Figure 11.7 shows how U.S. workers rated
job characteristics in a Gallup poll.
As much as possible, a
supervisor should respond to individual differences. When a particular type of
motivation does not seem to work with an employee, a supervisor should try some
other motivator to see if it better matches the employee’s needs.
EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
One
way to learn about employees’ needs and benefit from their ideas is to
encourage employees to participate in planning and decision making. Employees
tend to feel more committed when they can contribute to decisions and
solutions. They also are likely to cooperate better when they feel like part of
a team.
As
described in the “Supervision across Industries” box, Whole Foods Market gives
teams of employees great decision-making authority. The supermarket chain
extended this practice to a recent decision about health insurance benefits.
The company had a self-insured plan, but claims overwhelmed the plan’s funds,
so Whole Foods developed a plan using medical savings accounts. The company
deposits money into employee accounts, and the employees, who pay no premiums,
pick up the first $500 of prescription costs and $1,000 of other medical bills.
After that, bills are paid from the savings accounts. After a one-year trial,
Whole Foods had its employees evaluate whether to continue the new savings
account approach or opt for traditional insurance coverage. By an overwhelming
margin, the employees voted to keep the medical savings accounts. Part of the
appeal is likely that Whole Foods workers tend to be relatively young and
healthy; in a recent year, only 10 percent of employees spent all the money in
their accounts, and the remaining dollars rolled over into the next year’s
account. Because the employees don’t have to pay insurance premiums, more of
them elect the insurance coverage as part of their benefits package. And Whole
Foods is delighted, because the arrangement is helping it control health
coverage expenses.
PRACTICAL
METHODOLOGY
INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS
For managers, the data showed that the primary motivation technique was
perceived as money (50%) followed by training (22%) and recognition (22%);
criticism accounted for only 6%. With respect to successful motivation, their
responses indicated money (65%) followed by recognition (29%); training was
only 6%. The success of motivation techniques had a mean between excellent and
good and a standard deviation of around one with an equally spaced scale
between 5 and 1. Employee performance was between good and moderate with a
standard deviation of 0.7 with a scale from five to one. Performance of
employees was perceived as a problem with a mean of 4.9 and a standard deviation
of 0.3 with an equally spaced scale from five to one with five being definite
and one being definitely not. Another question involved handling poor
performance. Encouragement was the most frequent response (53%) followed by
termination (24%) and criticism (12%).
For employees, work tenure had a mean of 2.3 years with a standard
deviation of 1.5 years. The question whether better performance led to
promotion had a response of more than likely. The mean was 3.85 and the
standard deviation was 1.35 for an equally spaced scale with definitely being
five, more than likely being four and definitely not being one. The motivating
factors are identified as discipline (43%), recognition (24%) followed by money
(19%), promotion (10%) and criticism (5%). To the question if employees felt
motivated, the response had a mean of 3.65 with a standard deviation of 1.66
for an equally spaced scale with definitely being one, more than likely being
four and definitely not being one. Whether motivation affects effort drew a response
with a mean of 3.75 and a standard deviation of 1.3 for an equally spaced scale
with definitely being five, more than likely being four and definitely not
being one. To the question whether motivation affects performance, the response
had a mean of 3.7 and a standard deviation of 1.09 for an equally spaced scale
with definitely being five, more than likely being four and definitely not
being one. The best motivation technique was identified as esprit de corps
being at the top (32%) followed by recognition (27%) and training and money,
each at 18%.
A t test was conducted on the
success of motivation techniques. Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in
the recognition of the value of motivation techniques between managers and
employees.Alternate Hypothesis: There is a difference in the recognition of the
value of motivation techniques between managers and employees.The p value for
the two-tailed test is 0.079 which is greater than 0.05. So we retain the null
hypothesis that there is no difference in the perception of motivation
techniques between managers and employees.
A t test was conducted on the
perception of motivation. Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in the
perception of motivation between managers and employees.Alternate Hypothesis:
There is a difference in the perception of motivation between managers and
employees.The p value for the two-tailed test is 0.06 which is greater than
0.05. So we retain the null hypothesis that there is no difference in the
perception of motivation between managers and employees.
A
T-test was conducted on the perception of performance. Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in the perception of
performance between managers and employees. Alternate Hypothesis: There is a
difference in the perception of performance between managers and employees.The
p value for the two-tailed test is 0.99 which is greater than 0.05. So we
retain the null hypothesis that there is no difference in the perception of
performance between managers and employees.
A
T-test was conducted on whether performance is a problem.Null Hypothesis: There
is no problem with performance as perceived by managers and employees.Alternate
Hypothesis: There is a problem with performance as perceived by managers and
employees. The p value for the two-tailed test is 0.004, which is less than
0.05. So we reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in the
perception of performance as a problem between managers and employees.
RESULTS
The
results show that both managers and employees agree on the importance of
motivation on employee performance. However, there is a difference in the
perception of performance as a problem between managers and employees. Also,
employees placed a premium on esprit de corps or firm culture and congeniality
and recognition; money was lower on the scale. Managers, on the other hand,
placed a greater emphasis on monetary factors with training and recognition
following well behind. This study, though constrained by small sample size,
shows a marked difference between employees and managers as to what constitutes
successful motivation. Both groups agree that motivation is significant in
influencing performance. Further studies can focus on the differences between
manufacturing firms, service firms and retailers.
CONCLUSIONS
Motivation
is based on growth needs. It is an internal engine, and its benefits show up
over a long period of time. Because the ultimate reward in motivation is
personal growth. The only way to motivate an employee is to give him
challenging work for which he can assume responsibility. Human motivation is so
complex and so important, successful management development for the next
century must include theoretical and practical education about the types of
motivation, their sources, their effects on performance, and their
susceptibility to various influences. Employees are the company’ best assets.
If employees are not as motivated, it will have a tremendous effect on
productivity. The organization’s overall efficiency will decline by unmotivated
employees. Managers may even need to hire additional employees to complete
tasks that could be done by the existing force.
I
believe that emotions are also involved in motivation. An employee who is
easily emotional about situations may lack the stability to perform optimally.
Motivation is also influenced but morale and attitude. Based on previous
research done, under regular conditions, employees tend to work at only about
two-thirds of their capacity. Motivation may also be influenced by the
manager’s management style. If a manager is not liked, employees may function
minimally.
Proper
motivation of employees is directly associated with productivity and with
maintenance factors. Workers who are content with their jobs, who feel
challenged, who have the opportunity to fulfill their goals will exhibit less
destructive behavior on the job. They will be absent less frequently, they will
be less inclined to change jobs, and, most importantly, they will produce at a
higher level.
To
be a successful manager one must be a people mover, who motivates employees to
increased productivity. Get to know your people well! Remember that people do
things for their reasons. Try to understand where the person is coming from. We
all have different motives. If employers do not recognize soon what are their
employees’ motives they will be destined to lose some of their best people.
Motivation is the most critical factor in productivity. Motivation is the key.
References
Adeyemo, D.A. (1997). Relative
influence of gender and working experience on job satisfaction of primary
school teachers.The Primary School Educators, 1, 1, 86-89.
Adeyemo, D.A. (2000). Job
involvement, career commitment, organizational commitment and job satisfaction
of the Nigerian police. A multiple regression analysis. Journal of Advance
Studies in Educational Management 5(6), 35-41.
Adeyemo, D.A. & Aremu, A.O.
(1999). Career commitment among secondary school teachers in Oyo state,
Nigeria. The Role of biographical mediators.Nigerian Journal of Applied
Psychology 5 (2), 184-194.
Akinboye, J.O. (2001).Executive
behaviour battery. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers.
Akintoye, I.R. (2000). The place of
financial management in personnel psychology. A Paper Presented as Part of
Personnel Psychology Guest Lecture Series. Department of Guidance and
Counselling, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Alexander, J.A; Liechtenstein, R.O,
& Hellmann, E. (1998). A causal model of voluntary turn-over among nursing
personnel in long term psychiatric setting. Research in Nursing and Health
21 (5), 415-427.
Armentor, J. & Forsyth, C.J.
(1995). Determinants of job satisfaction among social workers. International
Review of Modern Sociology 25 (20), 51- 63.
Armstrong, M. (1999).Human
resources management practice. London: Kogan Page.
Banjoko, S.A. (1996).Human
resource management. Lagos: Saban Publishers.
Barret, R. (1999). Why the future
belongs to value-added companies.Journal for Quality and Participation 22
(1),30-35.
Becker, T.E,; Randal, D.M, &
Riegel, C.D.(1995).The multidimensional view of commitment and theory of
reasoned action: A comparative evaluation: Journal of Management 21 (4),
617-638.
Bolarin, T.A. (1993). Late payment
of teachers' salary as it affects the quality of education in Lagos state
primary schools: A socio-psychological perspective. Journal of National
Association of Education Teachers 6 (1), 11-15.
Brown, J. & Sheppard, B. (1997).
Teacher librarians in learning organizations. Paper Presented at the Annual
Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship, Canada.
August 25-30.
Colvin, G. (1998). What money makes
you do. Fortune 138 (4), 213-214.
Davis, K.(1988).Ypetmede ysan
davranypy: Orgusel Davranypy. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
D'elia, G.P. (1979). Determinants of
job satisfaction among beginning librarians.Library Quarterly 9, 283-302.
Dornstein, M., & Matalon, Y.
(1998). A comparative analysis of predictors of organizational commitment. A
study of voluntary army personnel in Isreal.Journal of Vocational Behaviour
34 (2), 192-203.
Ebru, K. (1995). Job satisfaction of
the librarian in the developing countries. 61st IFLA General Conference
Proceedings Aug 20-25.
Ellemmer, N., Gilder, D., &
Heuvel, H. (1998). Career oriented versus team oriented commitment and
behaviour at work. Journal of Applied Psychology 83 (3), 717-730.
Ergenc, A. (1982a). Kippinin
performance duzeyi, ype baolylyoy ve yp doyumu: Nedesel bir analiz.
Psikoloji Dergisi 16, 49-55.
Evans, M.G. (1986). Organisational
behaviour: The central role of motivation.Journal of Management 12 (2),
203.
Ezeani, S.I. (1998).Research
methods: A realistic approach. Ibadan: Elohim Publishers.
Fafunmwa, A.B. (1971).New
perspective in education. London: Macmillan Education Limited.
Flanegan, T.J., Johnson, W.W. &
Berret, K. (1996). Job satisfaction among correction executives: A contemporary
portrait of warders of state prisons of adults. Prison Journal 76 (4),
385-397.
Gomez-Hernandez, R., Max, J.E.,
Kosier, T., Paradiso, S. & Robinson, R.G. (1997). Social impairment and
depression after traumatic brain injury.Archives of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation 78 (12), 132-136.
Guest, E.A. (1991).Human resource
management. London: McGraw-Hill.
Hackett, R.D., Bycio, P., &
Hausadorf, P.A. (1994). Further assessment of Meyer and Allen's 1991 three
components model of organizational commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology
79, 340-350.
Hamshari, O.A.M. (1989). Job
satisfaction of professional librarians: A comparative study technical and
public service department in academic libraries in Jordan. Dissertation
Abstract International 46, 3179A.
Hellmann, C.M. (1997). Job
satisfaction and intent to leave.Journal of Social Psychology 137 (5),
677-689.
Horenstein, B. (1993). Job
satisfaction of academic librarians. An examination of the relationship between
satisfactions, faculty status participation. College and Research Libraries
56 (4), 341-350.
Irving , P.G., Coleman, D.F., &
Cooper, C.L. (1997). Further assessment of a three component model of
occupational commitment: Generalizability and differences across occupations.
Journal of Applied Psychology 82,444-452.
Jamal, M. (1997). Job stress,
satisfaction and mental health: An empirical examination of self employed and
non-self employed Canadians. Journal of Small Bussiness Management 35 (4),
48-57.
Kadushin, G., & Kullys, R.
(1995). Job satisfaction among social work discharge planners. Health and
Social Work 20 (3), 174-186.
Kose, M.R. (1985). A study of job
satisfaction of employees in three research organizations in Turkey.
Yayymlanmanyyp yuksek Lisans tezi. Ankara: ODTU.
Locke, E.A. & Lathan, G.P.
(1990). Theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall. Pp 248-250.
Luthans, F. (1998).Organisational
Behaviour. 8th ed. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Lynch, B.P., & Verdin, J.A.
(1987). Organisational commitment: Analysis of Antecedents.Human Relations
40 (4), 219-236.
MacDonald, R. (1996). Labours of
love: Voluntary working in a depressed economy. Journal of Social Policy 25
(1), 19-38.
Mathieu, J.E. & Zajac,
D.M.(1990). A review and meta analysis of the antecedents correlates and
consequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin 108,
171-199.
Meyer, J.P., & Allen, N.J.
(1991). A three component conceptualization of organizational commitment.Human
Resource Management Review 1, 61-89.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J.
(1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miner, J.B., Ebrahimi, B., &
Wachtel, J.M. (1995). How deficiency in management contributes to the United
States' competiveness problem and what can be done about it?Human Resource
Management. Fall, p. 363.
Mitchell, T.R. & Lason, J.R.
(1987). People in organization. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Moser, K. (1997). Commitment in
organizations. Psychologies 41 (4), 160-170.
Mooday, R.T., Porter, L.W., &
Steer, R.M. (1982). Employees organization linkages. New York: Academic Press.
Nkereuwem, E.E. (1990). Issues on
the relationship between job satisfaction, job attitudes and work behaviour
among the staff in academic libraries. Information Services and Use 10 (5),
281-291.
Northcraft, T. & Neale, H.
(1996). Organisation Behaviour. London: Prentice-Hall.
Nwagwu, C.C. (1997). The environment
of crisis in the Nigerian education system.Journal of Comparative Education
33 (1), 87-95.
Olajide, A. (2000). Getting the best
out of the employees in a developing economy. A Personnel Psychology Guest
Lecture Series. Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan,
Nigeria.
Oshagbemi, T. (2000). How satisfied
are academics with their primary tasks of teaching research and administration
and management.International Sustainable in Higher Education 1 (2), 124
-136.
O'Toole, A. (1980). Work in an era
of show economic growth.Technological Forecasting and Social Change 16 (4)277-330.
Paramer, C.& East, D. (1993).
Job satisfaction among support staff in Twelve Ohio Academic Libraries.College
and Research Libraries 54, (1), 43-57.
Philips, J.S. (1994). Evolution of
affective career outcomes: A field study of academic librarians. College and
Research Libraries 55 (6), 541-549.
Salancik, G.R. (1977).Commitment and
the control or organizational behaviour and belief. In B Staw and G. Salancik
(ed),New direction in organizational behaviour. Chicago: St Clair Press,
pp. 1-59.
Sencer, M. (1982). Kamu gorevlilerinde
yp doyumu ve moral Guduleme Kurumlargny Eleptirisel Bir Yaklapym. Amme Ydaresi
Dergisi 15, 3-48.
Shore, L.M., & Wagner, S.J.
(1993). Commitment and employees behaviour. Comparison of affective commitment
with perceived organizational support.Journal of Applied Psychology 78,
774-780.
Silverthrone, C.P. (1996).
Motivation and management styles in the public and private sectors in Taiwan
and a comparison with United States.Journal of Applied Social Psychology 26
(20), 1827-1837.
Sinclair, R.R., Tucker, J.S.,
Cullen, J.C., & Wright, C. (2005). Performance differences among four
organizational commitment profiles. Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (6),
1280-1287.
St. Lifer, E. (1994). Career survey,
job satisfaction, are you happy in your jobs? Exclusive Report. Library
Journal 119, (18), 44-49.
Steer, R.M., Mooday, R.T., &
Porter, L.W. (1982).Employee organisation linkages. New York: Academic
Press.
Tang, T.L., & LiPing, J.K.
(1999). The meaning of money among mental health workers: The endorsement of
money ethic as related to organization citizenship behaviour, job satisfaction
and commitment. Public Personnel Management 28, 15-26.
Tregone, S. (1993). Comparison
between school library media specialists and public libraries. A scholarly
Paper in Partial fulfillment Requirements for the Degree of specialist in
Education. Georgia State University.
Vinokur, K.D., Jayaaratne, S.,
Chess, W.A. (1994). Job satisfaction and retention of social workers in public
agencies, non-profit agencies and private practice: The impact of work place
conditions and motivators.Administration in Social Work 18 (3)93-121.
Weiss, D.J. (1967). Manual for the
Minnesota satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota Studies in Vocational
Rehabilitation, XXII. University of Minnesota.
Wellmaker, R.B. (1985). The
relations of perceived management systems and job satisfaction of public
librarians. Dissertation Abstracts International 45: 3347A.
Yincir, G. (1990). Calypanlaryn Yp
doyumu Uzerne bir Ynceleme. Ankara : Milli Productivity Merkezi Yayynlary: 401.