TABLE OF
CONTENT
Dedication
Foreword
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Role of enzymes on medical sciences
CHAPTER TWO
Role of enzymes on industrial
CHAPTER
THREE
Role of enzymes on pollution apartment
CHAPTER FOUR
Role of enzymes on Genetic engineering
1.0 BIOLOGICAL
ROLES OF ENZYMES
First
what are enzymes? Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for the
thousands of chemical interconvertion that sustain life. They work by binding
to one or more specific molecules called reactants or substrates Wenger D.A., Rafi
M.A. Luzip, Datto J., Constantino-Ceccarini E. Krabb disease, genetic
aspect and progress toward therapy. Mol.genet metab. 2000 May, 70(f) 1-9.
Today in the world as
the case of be in medical sciences, the use of enzymes in the diagnosis of disease is
one of the important benefits derived from the intensive research in biochemistry
since the 1940.
Enzymes have provided the basis for the
field of clinical chemistry. It is however
only in the recent past few decades that interest in diagnostic enzymology has multiplied.
In an industries
genetic engineering, scientists have began putting genes that makes up enzymes
from human being into food crops in a dramatic extension of genetic modification. The
move which is causing disgust and revision among critics, is bound to
strengthen accusations that GM technology is crating "Frankenstein foods and drive the controversy
surrounding it to new heights.
Note:
In
the industry and practical examination by the scientist enzymes are proteins that participate in cellular
metabolic processes with ability to enhance the
rate of reaction between biomolecules.
1.1 ENZYMES CLASSIFICATION
Enzymes
are classified according the reaction they catalyze. The six classes are:
·
Oxidoreductases
·
Tranferases
·
Hydrolases
·
Lyases
·
Isomerase
·
Ligases
Examples
1.
Alcohol dehydrogenase: An
oxidoreductase converting alcohols
to
aldehydes/ketones.
aldehydes/ketones.
2.
Aminotransferases: Transferases catalyzing the amino acid
degradation
by removing amino groups.
by removing amino groups.
3.
Pyruvate decarbotylase: A lyase that removes €02 from
pyruvate.
Amj Hum Genet. 1971 September; 23(5):
513-532. PmCID: PmC1706762.
1.2 ROLES OF
ENZYMES ON MEDICAL SCIENCES:
Enzymes has been identified that may be a
powerful new tool for fighting Alzheimer's
disease. (BACEZ) is the enzyme that has been found to destroy betaamyloid, a toxic protein fragment that litters Alzherimer patient's brains. The most common
memory disorder is Alzheimer's
disease affecting over 5.5 million Americans. Scientists have yet to discover
any effective treatments.
1.3 INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ON ENZYMES
In the
field of biotechnology there are many industrials application that result in biotech products that we use everyday at
home. Some of these are food science applications that utilize enzymes
to produce or make improvements in the
quality of different foods.
Rouault TA, Tong WH. Iron-Sulfur cluster biogenesis and human diseases.
Nends Gennet, 2008 August, Review: enzymes and their roles in the industry are milk contains proteins,
specifically caseins that maintain it liquid form.
Proteases are enzymes that are added to milk during cheese production, to hydrolyze caseins.
2.0 POLLUTION
Pollution from the industrial processes can be reduced by enzymes previously only a
small range of enzymes have been available for the chemical industry. The U and C
researchers are the first to produce an enzymes capable of speeding up
oxidizing processes.
The new enzymes will be important in sensitive processes such as those involved in medicine
production in the pharmaceutical industry.
Environmental pollution is growing more and more due to the indiscriminated and
frequently deliberate release on hazardous, harmful substances research
efforts have been devoted to develop new, low-cost, low-technology ,
eco-friendly treatment capable of reducing and even eliminating pollution in
the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the soil environment.
2.1 REDUCES POLLUTION OXIDIZING
Processes the bases of all chemical oxidizers are often dangerously unrefined, often
requiring high temperatures, extreme pressure and corrosive surroundings.
They can be designed to be unbelievable specific and are able to
operate under moderate conditions unlike their traditional chemical
counterparts.
Drugge U, Holmberg
M, Holmgren G, Almay B.G, Linder -Holm H., Hereditary
Myopathy with Lacti acidosis, Succinate dehydrogenase and aconitase deficiency
in northern Sweden, a genealogical study. Imed Genet.
1995 May; 32(5):3447.
2.2 GENETIC ENGINEERING
Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin. Genetic engineering also called genetic
modification of an organism that is generated
through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOS were
bacteria in 1973; Gm mice
were generated in
1974, Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically
modified food has been sold since 1994.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous field including research
agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry
detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now
manufactured in GM cells.
2.3 GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM
Plant, animals 'or
micro-organism that have changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organism or GMOS. Bacteria
were the first organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA
containing new genes can be inserted into
the bacteria will then express those genes. These genes can code for medicines or enzymes that
process food and other substrates. Plant
have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance,
enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines.
Kollerg G.
Tulinius M., Meiberg A. Darinto Anderson O., Holngren D., Oldfors A. Home E.
Clinical manifestation and a new iscu mutation in iron-sulphur cluster deficiency myopathy. Brain-2009 Aug; 132 '(pt. 8): 2170-9
doi:10, 1093/brian/awp 152. Eub 2009
Jun. 30.
Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animal and the production of agricultural or
pharmaceutical products. They include animals
with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to diseases, hormones for
external growth and the ability to express protein in their milk.
2.4 BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING
Is the application of engineering principles and practices to the
purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin. Biomolecular engineers
integrate knowledge of biological processes with the core knowledge of chemical engineering
in order to focus on molecular level solution to issues and problems in the life science related to
the environment, agriculture, energy, industry,
food production, biotechnology and medicine.
Biomolecular engineering deals with the manipulation of many key biomolecules. These include, but are not
limited to, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids. These acid are
basic building blocks of life and by controlling,
creating and manipulating their form and function, there are many new avenues and advantages available to society.
2.5
ROLE OF ENZYMES IN THE REMEDIATION OF POLLUTED ENVIRONMENTS
Environmental pollution
is growing more
and more due
to the indiscriminate and
frequent deliberate release of hazardous, harmful
ENZYMES IN BLOOD CLOTTING
Enzymes are vitally important in preventing excessive blood clotting and reducing the
tendency for platelets and red blood cells to 'clog'. Because of enzymes
part in removing metabolic waste and improving circulation proteases for example;
Trypsin and chymotrypsin can be used in fibrinolysis, this a process that
dissolves blood clots. One use is in the case of thrombosis, this is when blot clots
form in damaged blood vessels, if
these clots are carried to an small artery and may become blocked a heart attack or stroke can be caused. This can be
treated by enzymes such as trypsin
and protease. Digestion of the insoluble fibrin clot takes place and because the enzymes are proteins this results
in a conversion.to amino acids,
consequently freeing the trapped blood cells and eliminating the clot. This
process is called fibrinolysis. Opposite to the prevention of clotting; the enzyme protease can be used as a
debriding agent they are used to
clean the wound and accelerate the healing process.
Enzymes can also be used in drug manufacture where the synthesis of
drugs is difficult therefore enzymes are used to perform the .chemical procedure. Enzymes
can also be used to aid digestion where they are used to supplement amylase,
lipase and protease produced mainly by the
pancreas. An example
is lactose intolerant people where they require
10
lactose
as their bodies are not producing it. Mold Penicillium notatum The last point in enzyme
application in medicine I will talk about is the production of antibiotics inparticular
penicillin. The major pharmaceutical; products produced using enzyme technology are
the antibiotic, semi-synthetic penicillins.
Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by micro organisms which are effective.
in dilute solution in preventing the spread of other micro organisms. Most inhibit growth
rather than kill the micro organism on which
they act. One of the best known antibiotics is penicillin -discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. It was
found that it acts on growing bacteria, killing them and preventing their
growth. It is believed to compete
with paraaminobenzoic acid for the active site of an enzyme. In this way they do not kill the bacteria but simply
stop them from reproducing.
Although it has been very successful since its discovery in 1928 and has had an enormous
influence on the control of disease, antibiotics have one serious drawback
this is that due to the development of resistance towards antibiotics by
pathogens there is a continuing need to find new types. Each time a new one is used
resistant strains of micro organisms arise which further drugs have to be
developed. In my opinion new developed drugs should therefore be used with much more
restraint and discrimination and more time should be used searching for natural antibiotics to the
development of new strains using genetic engineering.
In this term paper I have outlined and explained only a small number of the uses of
enzymes in medicine however there are many more successfully developed uses. Examples
include, in the treatment of genetic defects, the development of artificial organ
function, neoplasm, anti-inflammatory reagents, drug manufacture, the removal of
chiral components
and to aid digestion.
In the 20th century the use of enzymes in pharmaceutical and industry is limited
to a low number of very successful applications. However it is the very success of such
applications that continues to help pave the way for new developments and it is
clear that there is no shortage of ideas. After having an insight to the application of enzymes in
the medical and pharmaceutical problems I
have realised that it is an exciting and promising field that is ripe for
development in the near future.
THE ROLES OF ENZYMES IN GENETICS
So far
only around 3000, enzymes are known in the human body, but many thousands more
which have not yet been discovered are felt to be responsible for
keeping us alive. Their importance is enormous. They represent our life
energy! What is there origin? How far can we go to trace this enzymatic life
force activity for a single person? This book reviews the role of enzymes
in the origin of life and their specialization through evolution.
The genes passed parents and present along the chromosomes determine the actual
coding. The DNA molecules within the chromosomes constitute the actual memory of the
cell. Within a single cell there are roughly 100000 genes, the majority of with
code for enzymes. Each gene, whether structural, receptor, etc, is associates with an
enzyme action, and is predetermined to perform a specific function. -3 THE ROLES OF
ENZYMES IN REPRODUCTION (MITOSIS)
With the
help of enzymes the numerous cells reproduce by division ever second to form
new cells with exactly the same genetic composition. These will replace older ones. At the same
time, many older cells are dying. All of
required labor for the renewal and elimination is performed by the enzymes
encoded in those genes. Although the limited number of other cells do not actually divided to forms new
once, such as some brains cells and the ova within the ovaries, they are
maintained in a state of good health
by our enzymes.
13
REFERENCES
Am J. Hum Genet. 1971 September;
23(5):513-532pmcid:pmc 17067672
Drugge U. Holmberg M. Holmgren G. Almay B.G. Linderholm H. Heredity
Myopathy with lactic acidiosis, succinate dehygronase and aconitase deficiency
in northern Sweden. A genealogical study. J.med genet 1995 may; 32(5):344-7.
Kollberg G. Tulinius M. Melberg A. Darin N. Andersen O. Holmgren D. Oldfors A. Home E. Clinical Manifestation
and a new Iscu mutation in iron-sulphur cluster deficiency myopapthy.
Brain-2009 Aug; 132 (pt 8): 2170-9 doi:10,
1093/brian/awp 152. Hub 2009 Jun. 30.
Rouault T.A., Topy W.H. Iron-sulphur cluster biogenesis and human
disease. Trends Genet 2008
Aug. 24(8). 398-409. Epub 2008 Jul. 5 Review.
Wenger D.A., Rafi M.A., Luzip, Datto J., Constantino-Ceccarini E. Krabb Disease: genetic
aspects and progress toward therapy. Mol Genetmetab.2000 May; 70(1): 1-9