1. Set
induction
2. Use of
examples
3. Stimulus
variation (variety and variation)
4. Planned
repetition
5. Non-verbal
communication
6. Questioning
skills
7. Closure
Set
Induction
1. Set induction
is a deliberately planned action by the teacher to attract students’ attention,
get them really set or ready, stimulate their interest, motivate them for duty
ahead, make them eager, trigger off their curiosity and induce them to attend
to the lesson.
When are
Students Set Induced
According
to Amajirionwu (1985) situations when set should be induced could be itemized
as follows:
(a) At the
start of the lesson
(b) At the
start of a new stage in the lesson content
(c) When changing to a new idea in a lesson or
at the lesson’s development
(d) Before
a discussion
(e) Before a
question and answer period
(f) When
assigning home work
(g) Before
hearing a group or panel discussion
(h) Before
students reports of observations, investigations or studies
(i) When
assigning a project to an individual student
(j) Before
films and radio programmes
One can
easily see from the above catalogue of situations that set induction can be
used at the beginning of an activity or at the middle of such an activity or
when there is a change of idea in the activity. At these stages, there is a
need to provide a new or modified background for the activity and persons
concerned ought to be fully aware and ready.
Ways in which
teachers set induce their students
Ways by which teachers can induce set are many.
Examples of such ways are given below
(a) Teachers
can induce set through their initial and varying actions and words;
i. The
class is called to order
ii. Let us
pray, boys and girls
iii. Good morning, good afternoon, good evening
students as the case may be
iv. Observing students in silence
v. Asking funny or probing questions
vi. Making educative or touching remarks
(b) Through the use of instructional materials.
Various teaching aids which students can see, touch or feel, hear or if
possible smell and taste can be shown to them. Such materials can attract
students’ attention and increase their curiosity.
(c) Creative questions can be used to set
induce students. Creative question make students think deeply, hold their
attention and get them involved in the lesson.
Set
induction if properly carried out contributes a lot to the success of any
lesson. It injects meaning into the lesson and serves as the foundation upon
which every other part of the lesson is built.
2. Stimulus Variation (Variety, Variation)
Human nature requires variety or variation hence the adage. Variation
is the spice of life. We are quite aware of the fact that many people like pounded
yam with egwusi soup. But if such a menu is served in about 5 or 6 continuous
meals, the eater loses appetite and interest and wants a change. The same is
true of classroom situations and activities. Stimulus variation or variation or
variety as teaching technique helps the teacher to reduce boredom in the
classroom. It is used to break monotony, avert in-attention or boredom and
rekindle interests, heighten awareness,
stimulate and energize students to focus their attention on the lesson. The
learner usually learns through one or a combination of such senses as sight,
hearing, touch, taste, feeling of smell. Each of these senses needs to be
stimulated through the use of different methods and different teaching
materials so as to sustain interest and attention of the learner. The most
important message in variety and variation is that whichever sense we want to
sensitize, we should vary our mode of sensitization so as to reduce boredom and
increase interest and attention of learners to ensure a more effective
learning.
Sources of
Stimulus Variation
(a) Body movement and gestures: different uses
of the eye-facial expressions.
(b) Use of different teaching aids and methods
to induce learners active participation in the lesson.
(c) Demonstrations with already prepared
pictures or diagrams beautifully drawn and decorated on cardboard sheets
(d) Demonstration with real objects wherever
possible so that children can see and touch them and become actively involved
in the lesson.
(e) Use of asides, jokes, riddles, signs,
nursery rhymes, proverbs, etc.
(f) Making use of international silence when
there is unnecessary noise that depicts boredom. Learners attention is drawn to
the teacher to find why there is such silence.
(g) Asking funny questions or making funny
statements:-
He does not eat rats but he uses his
teeth to divide them.
It seems you are filled with new wine.
Is noise making the best of food?
3. Use of
Examples
Examples are used to bring home the lesson to the
learners. That s to help learners clarify facts issues and problems in order to
achieve better understanding of them. In fact examples help to concretize the
lesson, improve understanding and acceptance. Examples used in a lesson help a
learner associate what he is familiar with to what is unfamiliar. Examples have
educative effect when.
(a) The teacher goes from particular to general
such as stating the concept to be learnt and then giving examples that will
illustrate, explain and clarify the idea in the concept.
(b) The teacher goes from general to particular
such as beginning with examples explaining a concept to be learnt and then
leading the students to generalize or infer from the examples. Whichever way
that is used what is very important is to see that the chosen examples are
related to the main idea of the concept.
(i) Verbal illustration like stories,
parables (Jesus Christ used parables copiously) analogies, anecdotes, morals.
(ii) Practical
illustrations like dramatization, demonstration, experiments
(iii) Printed illustrations like books,
pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, periodicals
(iv) Real life illustrations like objects,
specimens, diagrams, models, pictures, etc.
Remember: An example should have direct relationship with the
concept and the main idea it portrays.
4. Planned
Repetition
Planned
repetition is an important teaching technique provided it is skillfully used. There
are four types of planned repetition:-
i. Simple
Repetition
This type f repetition occurs immediately after
presenting a point or an idea in order to emphasize the point or an idea (for
more emphasis and better internalization) new words, concepts, formulae, and
demonstration of the use of a new device are repeated.
ii Spaced
Repetition
Spaced repetition occurs when a major point or
principle is repeated at different intervals during the lesson. In spaced
repetition, key words, ideas, concepts, formulae are internalizing them. Spaced
repetition is an invaluable teaching technique because it reminds the learners
about the major or salient points discussed during the course of the lesson.
iii Cumulative
Repetition
Cumulative repetition happens when major points in a
lesson are collectively and sequentially repeated particularly at different
stages of the lesson. Cumulative repletion of most salient points of the lesson
is usually made when preparing to switch over to another aspect of the lesson
or when introducing a more complicated step in the topic under presentation.
The purpose of making cumulative repetition is to help learners make logical
connections between one stage of the lesson and another for better
comprehension, retention and recall.
iv Massed
Repetition
This
type of repetition is made when all the major points of the lesson are
repeated. Such repetition is made at the end of a lesson by way of summary. The
purpose is to ensure mastery of the lesson. Planed repetition if skillfully
handled by competent teaches, becomes a very important teaching technique.
5. Non-verbal
Communication
Apart from the usual verbal communication undertake by
the teacher in the art of teaching, non-verbal communication which is the
communication we make without talking is an important teaching technique. This
type of communication simply makes use of signals. These signals are called
non-verbal cues or gestures. To make non-verbal communication in the classroom we
make use of all the parts of the body from the head to the toe.
The way any part of the body is
positioned or moved conveys the message. The head movements, the
arm-band-finger movement, the mouth and throat movement and the entire body
posture and motion can indicate clearly whether there is a positive or negative
state. For instance pouting, frowning and stamping of feet on the ground show
the children that what they are doing at the material time does not help the
progress of the lesson and therefore should be stopped. We all are aware of the
statement that action speaks louder than words. That is why non-verbal gestures
sometimes produce stronger and more lasting effects on learners than spoken
words. Non-verbal communication is therefore a very powerful tool in teaching.
6. Questioning
Skills
Questions are used in the classroom lessons to
stimulate and direct learning and to provide feedback.
Types of Questions
(i) Lower Order Questions:
Lower order questions test the
lowest level of thinking-recall or memorized facts or information. Such
questions start with what, when, where, how many, e.g what is the capital of
Nigeria? When did Nigeria become independent? Where is your school bag? How
many exercise books have you?
(ii) Middle
Order Questions
Middle order question tests more than
recall. Middle order questions requires the respondent to apply what has been
known to new situation. Examples: what will happen if population explosion in
Nigeria continues unchecked? Why is a spider not called an insect? Why must we
protect our pituitary gland?
(iii) Higher
Order Question
Higher order questions make more demands on the
thinking faculty of the students. They are thought provoking and require
learners to infer, compare, contrast, discuss, argue, evaluate and solve
questions. Teachers must endeavour to ask higher order questions in order to
enable students think and solve questions.
Examples:
Discuss the effect of oil glut in Nigeria.
Compare
the situation in Nigeria when oil was booming and he situation now when oil is
glutting.
What
do you think would have happened if there was no civil war in Nigeria?
(iv) Probing
Questions
Probing questions are asked in order to seek further clarification
or elaboration based on the initial answer. Lawyers are advocates of probing
questions. In order to establish their cases or outmaneuver their opponents.
Teachers in like manner should ask their students probing questions in order to
defend their initial answers.
Examples:
Why
do you say that lion are carnivorous animals?
Why
do you say that some species of cattle cannot be reared in southern Nigeria?
(v) Divergent
or Creative Questions
Divergent questions are asked to
test man’s highest level of thinking and imagination. Divergent questions are
usually open ended questions.
Example:
Students
who work patently and diligently often…
The
inhabitants of a nation that want greatness are expected to…