11.3 Processing and preserving method
The best methods for small-scale processing are: drying, chemical preservation and heat processing.
11.3.1 Drying. All living materials require water for survival. Fresh produce contains up to 95 percent water and thus is sufficiently moist to support both enzyme activity and growth of micro-organisms. The aim in drying is to reduce the water content of the produce to a level insufficient for enzyme activity or the growth of micro-organisms. The critical level is about 10-15 percent moisture, depending on the commodity. If too much water is removed, the product becomes brittle and is easily shattered.
To
process and preserve fresh produce successfully, the spoilage agents must be
destroyed without ruining the nutritional value or palatability of the produce
itself.
Unfortunately, fruit, vegetables and
root crops are the only natural source of the essential vitamin C in our food.
This vitamin is easily destroyed, especially where processing makes use of
heat. In order to retain the maximum amount of vitamin C in processed food, it:
- should be used when freshly harvested;
- must not be subjected to long soaking or washing;
- must be processed immediately after preparation;
- should not be treated in copper, iron or chipped pans.
The best methods for small-scale processing are: drying, chemical preservation and heat processing.
11.3.1 Drying. All living materials require water for survival. Fresh produce contains up to 95 percent water and thus is sufficiently moist to support both enzyme activity and growth of micro-organisms. The aim in drying is to reduce the water content of the produce to a level insufficient for enzyme activity or the growth of micro-organisms. The critical level is about 10-15 percent moisture, depending on the commodity. If too much water is removed, the product becomes brittle and is easily shattered.
Produce can be dried by using solar
or artificial heat. Solar (sun) drying is cheap but is not so easily controlled
as dehydration by more sophisticated means. In some countries, heat from
burning agricultural waste is used for drying, as in copra driers, which have
also been used for drying root crops.
Drying by direct exposure to the sun
has a number of disadvantages:
- Exposure of produce to dust and atmospheric contamination
- Interference from animals and humans
- Insect infestation
- No control of conditions.
Recently much research has gone into
the design of solar driers for fresh produce in order to overcome these
problems. Solar driers can be:
- direct exposure driers, in which the prepared produce is exposed to the sun in a ventilated cabinet with transparent sides and cover, on an insulated, heat-absorbing base; there is little control of temperature or air flow;
- indirect exposure driers, in which an inclined, insulated heat trap directs a flow of sun-heated air up a tower where produce is exposed on mesh trays; the air flow and temperature con be controlled by louvres at the air inlet and outlet;
- a combination of direct and indirect drying is employed when the walls of the tower of an indirect drier are covered with transparent material so that there is some direct exposure of the drying material to the sun's heat.
The rate of loss of vitamin C from
the produce is reduced when the indirect solar drying method is used.
Drying should be as rapid as
possible in order to maintain quality and minimize vitamin loss. The rate of
drying depends on:
- the exposure of a large surface area of the produce, which speeds drying; most produce should be cut into strips not more than 5 mm thick;
- the temperature should be high enough (50-70 degrees Celsius) to give rapid moisture removal; temperatures over 70 degrees cause discoloration of the product;
- the warm air current must be dry; if it is humid, it cannot absorb moisture from the drying product;
- special treatments may be given to certain types of produce before drying; for example:
1.
Fruit and vegetables may be treated
with sulphur dioxide before drying in order to prevent enzymatic browning; it
also slows breakdown of vitamin C and kills some micro-organisms;
2.
Most vegetables except onions and
garlic are blanched by dipping them in hot water for a few minutes before
drying; this stops the action of enzymes which may not be killed by the
sun-drying process;
3.
Green vegetables retain their colour
better during drying if about 0.25 percent of bicarbonate of soda is added to
the blanching water, but this will speed up the loss of vitamin C;
4.
Dried cassava forms an important
part of the staple diet in parts of Africa and Latin America; the dried product
may be in the form of chips, granules or flour; in some areas the grated
cassava root is fermented for a short time before being dried by artificial
heat or sunlight;
5.
Dried vegetable products are subject
to severe insect infestation, and some may be affected by exposure to light
during storage; dried produce must be stored in a very dry atmosphere, in
insect-proof containers and away from light. ·
11.3.2 Processing using chemicals.
Chemicals used in processing include sugar, salt, vinegar and chemical
preservatives such as sodium meta-bisulphite. The principal products are:
Preserves with sugar. This is based on using a high concentration of sugar with
fruit pulp or juice to create a product in which it is difficult for moulds and
yeasts to grow. It includes:
- Jams and jellies. In these products acidified fruit pulp is boiled with sugar until the cell wall pectins of the fruit form a gel. The final product should contain at least 60 percent sugar. The hot preserve is sealed in sterilized jars to prevent contamination during storage.
- Fruit cheeses. Pulped fruit is sieved and mixed with an equal weight of sugar. The mixture is heated to remove most of the water. It is then spread on trays to cool and dry; then it can be cut into cubes and stored under very dry conditions.
- Fruit drink concentrates. The juice is extracted from heated fruit pulp and made into a syrup with a high sugar concentration. The squash or syrup is put into sterilized bottles, which are heated in a bath at 88 degrees Celsius (simmering) for 20 minutes. The bottles are closed with sterile caps for storage. Drinks are prepared by diluting the concentrate with water.
Pickled vegetables. Young fresh vegetables of many types as well as some
fruits can be preserved by pickling in vinegar. The prepared vegetables or
fruit are first soaked for a few days in a strong salt solution (brine) and
then packed into jars which are then filled with cold vinegar. The vinegar is
usually flavoured by steeping the desired spices in it for one or two months.
The jars should be closed with plastic-lined covers.
Preservation with salt. This method is usually used for preserving green beans.
Young green beans and salt are placed in alternate layers in large glass or
earthenware jars, the top layer being of salt. The jars are closed with
moisture-proof covers and then they are stored on stands.
Fermented products. In several countries vegetables are subjected to lactic
acid fermentation in brine, such as sauerkraut in Germany, made from shredded
cabbage, and takuwan in Korea, using radishes. In the Pacific islands, a
fermented product is made by burying peeled starchy produce in pits lined with
Heliconia or banana leaves. The product, known as masi or ma, is mostly made
from breadfruit, but green bananas, cassava roots or taro may also be used.
11.3.3 Heat treatments. For
many years fruit and vegetables have been preserved by heat, using canning or
bottling methods. The object is to kill the enzymes and micro-organisms by
heating the produce in liquid in cans or jars. The containers are then sealed
while still hot to prevent contamination of the sterilized contents. Although
moist heat inactivates enzymes and kills most micro-organisms, some bacteria,
such as Clostridium and Staphylococcus are heat-resistant and are capable of
growing and producing poisons in canned or bottled foods. Clostridium produces
a toxin which causes botulism, a fatal food poison.
Acid foods, such as fruit, inhibit
the growth of Clostridium and prevent the formation of the poison.
Non-acid foods such as peas and
beans and almost all vegetables can be preserved only by heat at the high
temperatures achieved in steam-pressure vessels. For this reason,
heat-processing methods are not recommended for processing any vegetables under
small-scale local conditions.
11.3.4 Information about
processing. Detailed information on the methods used in fresh-produce
processing is normally available from national departments of agriculture or of
food technology, through local department advisers or extension officers.
12. Marketing systems
12.1 Operators in the market
There can be many participants in
any given marketing system. Here are the main ones.
12.1.1 Farmers. Most small
farmers are mainly concerned with the growing of crops, and their awareness of
marketing as a tool to increase income is non-existent or is limited to what
they learn from other small farmers or from villagers nearby.
To many small farmers, marketing may
mean the sale of produce to a trader or its consignment to a commission agent.
They would sell directly to consumers or to a wholesale market only if the farm
is close to such outlets. As their production increases, farmers acquire other
sources and information about marketing systems, but in developing countries
very few growers have either sufficient production or sufficient knowledge to
take advantage of the marketing choices available.
12.1.2 Traders. The role of
traders is essentially to act as the link producer and distributor. They are
mostly entrepreneurs whose income depends on matching the supply of produce
with the demand of the market. They range from small family groups on a local
level to large international companies dealing with export and import of
produce in many countries.
The marketing of fruit and
vegetables in developing countries is marked by a large number of small
traders. They play an indispensable role in the marketing system. Their
importance is, however, not always appreciated and their profits are often
considered excessive, largely because farmers and government officers are unaware
of the traders' costs. The proportion of the retail price that comes to the
trader is generally much lower than that received by the farmer.
12.1.3 Commission agents. The
role of specialized commission agents is to take produce owned by a farmer or a
trader and sell it for the best price possible. They may find a buyer in an
organized wholesale market or by direct contact with distributors. The proceeds
of the sale, minus deduction for the agreed commission, are then passed back to
the former owner. Commissions commonly range from 4 to 10 percent of the price
obtained.
The commission system has advantages
for the farmer, who is likely to get a higher price than he would if selling to
an intermediate trader, even though the farmer carries the risk of loss always
present in the marketing of perishables. The farmer's confidence in the agent
rests on the knowledge that the agent's income depends on his getting the best
deal for the farmer.
12.1.4 Retailers. Market
demands for all commodities are essentially determined by retailers, who
therefore have great influence on market prices. What the retailer buys
reflects the quality and quantity of what he thinks his customers will buy. In
most developing countries, the quality of produce varies so widely that sales
potential exists for most grades of produce. Farmers and traders should
maintain contacts with retailers to be aware of market preferences so that they
can arrange production and post-harvest handling practices to provide produce
of the desired quality.
The prices paid by retailers will
depend on the number of competing buyers in the wholesale market and on the
volume of produce available: this is the law of supply and demand. Although
retailers try to buy produce at the cheapest possible price, most of them will
apply a standard mark-up and thus will obtain their usual profit margin
regardless of the wholesale price.
12.2 Types of markets
There are several common types of
markets, each filling a specific role.
12.2.1 Farmer markets. These
markets are simple retail operations where farmers sell produce directly to
consumers. They occur in towns or cities and may be in a covered market hall or
on an open street, on a daily or a weekly basis. Such markets have histories of
dozens or hundreds of years.
By selling directly to consumers,
farmers can ask and get much higher prices (and in cash) than they would by
selling to traders. To deal with retail customers takes time, however, and
moves only small quantities of produce. Losses can be high from customers' pinching
and prodding of produce, which then must be discarded if sufficiently damaged.
The industrious farmer can spend his time more profitably elsewhere.
12.2.2 Assembly markets. An
assembly market is much like a farmer market except that producers deal with
traders instead of directly with consumers. It is a farmer market on a
wholesale level. Traders find assembly markets convenient in saving themselves
expense and time they would need to travel to farms to collect produce.
Assembly markets tend to start from
a natural need by buyers and sellers, and their location will usually be
determined by proximity to good transport, whether road, rail or water, so that
traders can quickly move their purchases onward to markets.
The operation of an assembly market can
be simple, but a successful one will soon attract people providing services
such as weighing, packaging, loading equipment and perhaps even banking. The
building of a marketing hall will move the buying and selling under cover and
out of the weather, and may attract other services like packing and storing.
Assembly markets can be operated by
farmers through some cooperative association, by municipal or central
government bodies or by a number of large traders. There is, however, the
danger that sectional interests taking control of operations can put other
groups or persons at a disadvantage.
12.2.3 Wholesale markets. The
wholesale market provides a convenient point for the gathering of large amounts
of produce from many sources and for its division into small assortments to
meet the needs of retailers. In developing countries, incoming produce is most
commonly owned by a trader or may be consigned by a large farmer or a
cooperative, whereas in developed countries most produce is consigned by
farmers.
The need for a wholesale market
arises naturally as the population of a town increases and thus becomes remote
from producing farms. The simplest wholesale markets exist in small towns,
where incomes are relatively low. They may function only weekly, where farmers
or traders bring in only small quantities of produce of every size and quality.
Facilities may be minimal, and prices correspondingly low. Retail merchants may
compete with private customers and will generally get better prices because of
bulk purchasing. Many such retailers are street hawkers, though others may
operate stalls in the market itself, keeping longer hours than does the
wholesale operation. Such combination markets are common in African towns.
Many large cities in Asia and Latin
America have reached the stage of economic development where they can benefit
from a wholesale market exclusively for fruit and vegetables. Higher incomes in
cities always result in greater demand for fresh, high-quality produce, and
retail operations reflect what customers expect in quality and variety. The
size and diversity of a central wholesale market mean that it can satisfy the
needs of retailers and their customers.
The influence of a wholesale market
extends beyond its location. It supplies produce to retailers in surrounding
districts and to other wholesalers in more distant places. Prices set by supply
and demand at the wholesale market also have an importance beyond the market
itself as they become a reference point for the setting of prices for transactions
of farmers, traders and consumers on other markets. Wholesale markets may also
play an additional role as the receiving and marketing centre for imported
produce.
12.2.4 Retail outlets. As
cities grow and exercise more economic power, the trend in retailing is away
from street stalls and hawkers and toward fixed shops and supermarkets.
Hawkers. Although they have been part of market systems for
centuries, hawkers are actively discouraged in many countries as being traffic
hazards and as not contributing much to overall marketing schemes. Hawkers do,
however, benefit lower-income consumers by selling at low prices much
low-quality produce which might otherwise be a dead loss. Any reduction in
their numbers should be the result of more efficiency and better prices in
retail outlets and not of official harassment.
Public markets. Public retail markets have varying degrees of importance,
ranging from being the major source of produce for consumers to being a minor
supplement to its sale in shops. The usually low prices reflect low overhead
and operating costs, but the confinement of produce retailing to central market
districts means that customers must travel some distance to market. The
emergence of small fixed shops will eventually divert customers away from
central markets, even if they must pay higher prices.
Retail shops. Prices of produce in retail shops reflect a greater
variety of goods of a higher standard of quality than those found in public
markets. Competition between retailers is based mainly on attracting customers
by concentration on shop decoration, presentation of produce and personal
contact between staff and customers. Such shops are likely to be situated in or
near residential neighbourhoods.
Supermarkets. Retail shops can efficiently and quickly turn over large
quantities of produce but, with increasing costs that inevitably follow
economic development in communities, retail shops are pressed to sell ever
greater quantities in order to retain profitability. Thus supermarkets with
their greater financial resources can move into produce-selling at a relatively
small increase in overhead costs. Supermarkets can and do negotiate directly
with growers for supplies of fresh produce, thus eliminating middleman costs
entirely and selling produce at prices matching those of farmer markets. In
developing countries, however, produce in supermarkets is generally more
expensive than in open markets, largely because of packaging, high-quality
produce, and the attraction for the usually affluent customer of easy parking
and one-stop shopping.
13.
Marketing strategies
13.1 The goals
The aim of a commercial marketing
strategy is to sell a commodity at the time and place that can bring the
highest possible return. To develop a marketing strategy for fruit and
vegetables is much more complex than for, say, manufactured goods because of
the fragility and perishability of fresh produce. These factors place limits on
the time produce can be held, the distance it can be moved and the handling
costs that customers will be expected to bear. Such market uncertainties bring
a speculative element into trading activities and thus the attendant risk of
market manipulation.
Since trading of fruit and
vegetables in most countries operates as a free market, the law of supply and
demand regulates the market price. This means that the price will increase if
the supply falls below market demand and will decrease if the supply exceeds
the demand.
13.2 Supply of produce
The supply of a commodity is
calculated from the total quantity of produce that is grown and from the period
during which it is available. The quantity on a particular market is determined
by the area under cultivation, the productivity of the crop and the amount of
that crop brought in from other areas.
The supply of most commodities
moving to markets in developing countries usually varies over a year, but there
is considerable potential for change by manipulating both production and
transport factors to level and extend the supply.
13.2.1 Changing production volume.
Changes in fruit and vegetable growing patterns will best come about through
market forces. For example, when a market is under-supplied with a product, the
resulting high prices will encourage farmers to increase the area planted with
this crop and decrease that of a low-return commodity. Such changes can occur
more readily with annual crops like vegetables than with fruit from trees which
take years to come into production.
To bring about changes in cultivated
crops is more difficult in farming communities that are poorly educated and
have little concern with marketing. The opposite can happen if farmers become
too conscious of market trends and readily change crops if they have a poor
market return. This can start a lopsided cycle of overproduction and falling
prices followed by underproduction and rising prices and so on.
13.2.2 Transport to other markets.
Problems of over- and under-supply can be more quickly balanced by transporting
produce between districts with surplus or scarcity. A knowledge of prices is
essential for profitable trade between such districts, and this a strong
argument for the establishment of an organized market information system.
Interdistrict trading can be
organized on a long-term basis using information on annual market trends or in
response to a short-run supply in a market. For example, a severe storm can so
damage a crop that supplies to local markets are severely cut and prices rise
quickly. Traders familiar with regional prices can soon restore equilibrium by
transporting supplies of the scarce commodity. By the same means, farmers aware
of prices can save themselves the effort and expense of consigning produce to
glutted markets.
An efficient packing house can often
provide the focus for effective interdistrict trading because of its ability to
grade, pack and arrange transport for produce needed elsewhere.
13.2.3 Seasonal supply. The
harvest period of seasonal crops like most fruit and vegetables can be short,
with limited quantities of the crop available at the beginning and end of the
season and the peak production period coming in between.
The rewards of being able to market
a crop outside the normal harvest period are appealing both to farmers and
traders because of the higher prices accruing to out-of-season crops.
Pre-harvest manipulations can spread out harvesting periods, and post-harvest
techniques can extend the marketing period.
13.2.4 Pre-harvest manipulations
Growing locations. Within a given country, a greater range of harvest dates
can be established by taking advantage of different climatic conditions. In the
extreme, this means that in a large country like Australia freshly harvested
potatoes are available year-round because they are grown in areas of a wide
range of altitude and latitude. Even in small countries there is some
flexibility: Thailand has little variation in latitude, but onions are grown in
three areas spanning only an 800 m difference in altitude. The three different
harvest periods combined with a simple post-harvest storage programme allow the
marketing of onions for nine months of the year.
Farming practices. To profit from high, early-season prices, farmers are
tempted to harvest produce earlier than normal. This practice is wrong and
should be discouraged as such produce is not fully mature and is therefore of
poor eating quality.
Some manipulation of harvesting
dates is possible by the judicious use of irrigation late in the growing
season. Water applied at the proper time hastens the maturation of many crops
and thus they can be harvested earlier but at full maturity. This maturation
technique cannot advance harvest dates by more than two weeks, but that can be
sufficient to justify early-season prices.
Conversely, the optimum harvest date
can be delayed by restricting the use of water. This technique can be useful
for a late-maturing district growing a commodity with a very short storage
potential where it is profitable to market as long as possible after other
districts.
Cultivar selection. The harvesting period can also be adjusted by selecting
crop varieties which have different growing periods. Where early harvesting is
required, a variety with a short growing period could be selected, and vice
versa for late-harvest varieties.
Cultivar selection cannot be done at
random. Each variety has unique characteristics and will differ from others in
some aspect of appearance or taste. Customers may not like a new variety, and
its price may have to be marked down in order to sell.
Post-harvest technique. The ability of a farmer or trader to delay the marketing
of produce or to trade on distant markets can be greatly enhanced by the use of
post-harvest technology. The wide range of techniques now available to delay
ripening, to inhibit ageing and to control pests and diseases is discussed in Chapter
9.
13.3
Market information
The ability of a grower or an
organization to plan and act on an efficient marketing strategy for fruit and
vegetables will be greatly aided by access to accurate, adequate and timely
information on all aspects of the commodities being traded. Although every
person in marketing is in the course of his work collecting and analysing
information, no individual has the resources to gather information on all
markets of current and potential interest. The breadth and diversity of market
information can be collected and processed only by some system.
In addition to supplying data to
market operators, a market information system performs a valuable public
service by making market transactions more transparent. Its best result will be
its moderating influence on price fluctuations, as farmers and traders can act
more confidently to balance supply and demand and make it more difficult for
dishonest or deceptive practices to go unnoticed.
13.3.1 Users of market
information. All sections of the fruit and vegetable industry will benefit
from a market information system, although each group will use it differently:
- farmers need market information in order to plan production and to time harvest dates and post-harvest operations; it can also give guidance on time, place and price at which to sell produce;
- traders will be helped to find those markets yielding best returns, and retailers will more easily locate sources of supply; since both buyer and seller will be aware of prices being paid by competitors, they will more confidently operate on lower profit margins, with resultant benefits to farmers and consumers;
- transport operators can use market information in order to schedule staff and vehicles more easily;
- storage agencies will be able to use their facilities more efficiently if they are more alert to market trends;
- consumers can benefit by the greater competition a market information system generates among retailers and by a greater awareness of price conditions;
- governments can use market information to develop a sound agricultural policy in regard to food and to monitor national economic development; it can also be used to chart development programmes or export drives and even to establish the need for better roads and additional transport.
13.3.2 Type of market dab
required. Information required by persons or organizations will depend on
the size and complexity of their operations and on their ability to assimilate
and use the information. The type of data gathered by the system therefore
needs to be tailored to the needs of the users. A system that is too complex
will probably at first be underutilized, thus in effect wasting the time,
effort and money spent in gathering the data. On the other hand, a system that
is too simple will not do the job of developing efficient marketing. Systems
being initiated should thus take into account the increasing capability of its
users as they gain experience.
13.3.3 Market price. Market
price is the most important information required by market operators. Price
data need to be collected from all the major types of trading outlets, and the
system should therefore include prices paid at the farm gate, assembly markets,
central wholesale markets and retail outlets. If substantial import or export
of produce takes place, separate records of those prices should be maintained.
13.3.4 Source of data. Price
data must be qualified by the location where obtained. Although some averaging
or amalgamation of data is inevitable and it is often desirable to calculate a
national average price for commodities, it is essential that districts with
distinctive trading patterns retain their identity in the information system.
Similarly, for exports and imports, the prices obtained and prices paid for
produce at or from different countries should be separately reported.
13.3.5 Trading volume. The
volume of produce presented for trading in different markets is of considerable
importance since volume is a direct determinant of market price. Data on
arrivals in assembly and wholesale markets, outgoing dispatches to other
markets and traders, and stock being held in a market should be collected.
13.3.6 Marketing costs. Costs
and charges incurred at various stages of the marketing chain could be reported
with information on market charges, costs of transport, and stock held.
13.3.7 Coverage of data.
Ideally, price and volume information on all produce should be reported daily,
but a lower frequency will undoubtedly be more realistic for most countries,
owing to the limited resources that can be allocated to information services.
If the system is to be of any value to the produce industry, reporting must be
done at least once a week.
There will be the need for some sort
of codification of markets in the information that is distributed. A central
wholesale market has sufficient turnover to be included as an entity, but
smaller local markets will need to be grouped into categories based on the kind
of market activity. In the same way, there will be some regional grouping of
markets into zones, but care must be taken to preserve unique trading features
or commodity profiles of different districts.
For commodities which have
particular importance to a country but are produced and traded across different
market zones, it may be convenient to maintain a separate record of each
commodity so that the market price and movement can more easily be followed.
13.3.8 Market reviews. The
publication of daily or weekly market information in price and volume of
produce traded is useful for a continuing assessment of market strategies, but
it can also be adapted for long-term planning by analysing market trends on a
quarterly, semiannual or annual basis and for making comparisons with
performance in previous years.
13.4 Operating a market information system
If an information service is
starting from scratch, it is advisable to limit its scope to a few major
commodities and a restricted trading path while aiming to generate daily
information to be disseminated the same day or at latest the next day. The goal
should be to supply a regular and reliable service that its users see as
performing a useful function. Only when the service is operating efficiently
should it seek to expand its range of commodities and markets.
Daily reports could be displayed at
markets participating in the service, with duplicated sheets distributed to
traders and to other interested agencies.
The reports could contain
information on:
Price. the highest, the lowest, and the most frequently occurring
prices of each unit sold, with reference to the varieties and grades of
commodity traded on each market. The most-frequent (or modal) price is
important as the barometer of market trends.
Supply. the volume of produce available for trading in the various
produce grades; where an accurate measure is not possible, a standardized
ranking system could be used, such as a l-to-5 scale, with 3 as the average
supply and 5 as great oversupply.
Movements: for larger markets, particularly in cities, arrival and
dispatches of loads (including imports) in terms of volume or of number of
loads;
Summary. general comments on any significant change in trading
pattern or any factors, such as weather or traffic conditions, likely to affect
trade soon.
The collection of information should
be entrusted to one person well versed in fruit and vegetable trading. It is
important that subjective assessments be consistent from day to day, and
different observers will naturally show variation in their judgements.
14. Strategies for improvement in marketing
14.1
Development of a plan
The methods available to improve a
marketing system are almost infinite. The key to successful marketing
improvement is to determine which of these methods are most suitable for a
particular marketing situation.
Any marketing improvement programme
must be preceded by a study of the existing marketing situation. Then goals for
improvement can be established, to be followed by a plan for action. Such a
study is best conducted by a government-sponsored group with considerable
knowledge of fruit and vegetable marketing, but it should not be directly
involved in the ownership or management of existing marketing operations. The
active cooperation of fruit and vegetable marketing groups is, however,
essential to assist in the study.
The evaluation must identify the
size and shape of:
- All inefficiencies in the present marketing operations
- All inadequacies in services
- All weaknesses traceable to poor organization.
The social and economic targets to
be achieved need then to be defined, and the deficiencies in the present system
ranked in order of importance with respect to these goals. The seriousness of
each deficiency in technical terms should also be given with an assessment of
possible technical solutions.
The development plan can be short,
medium or long term. It may span the total marketing system, but it usually
embraces only specific commodities or a subsystem of the marketing chain. It
should describe various options to improve marketing in terms of social and
economic costs and benefits and their feasibility. The action plan should
provide a timetable for the various components:
- Organization and management procedures required
- Targets to be achieved
- Delegation of responsibilities for action to specific people or groups.
Although the government may hold
responsibility for coordinating such a plan, the follow-up work should be
passed on to industry people such as a market authority or farmers'
association, and this could include responsibility for financing parts of the
plan. An overdependence on government control and funding can run counter to
the efficient management of a commercial enterprise.
14.2 Training of marketing personnel
The lack of qualified personnel is a
major constraint to market improvement in developing countries. A prerequisite
of any marketing development programme is the presence of people experienced in
all aspects of fruit and vegetable marketing. Personnel helping to implement
the improvement programme must be qualified in the various supporting
technologies and management systems. Experience and knowledge will be required
in order to implement:
- an advisory service to assist farmers and post-harvest handling agencies;
- the management of storage facilities and packing houses;
- the organization of market facilities.
Farmers and traders will need
training not only in the introduced technologies but also in the need for
continuing improvements in marketing.
Training of all personnel associated
with marketing operations needs to be a national priority if marketing
development is to succeed. Training must, however, be considered a long-term
activity: initial training must be followed by work experience and further
training at increasingly advanced levels.
Additional training must also be
given to officers of extension services, who must themselves acquire enough
knowledge of marketing activities to assist farmers.
Traders and post-harvest handling
groups will also need to be well informed.