TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title page .
Dedication n
Acknowledgements iii
Table of contents IV
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective 2
CHAPTER TWO
Title page .
Dedication n
Acknowledgements iii
Table of contents IV
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective 2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review 3
2.1 Classification of Mushroom 4
2.1.1 Edible Mushroom 5
2.1.2 Non Edible/Toxic Mushroom 5
2.2 Nutritional Quality of Mushroom 6
2.3 Medicinal Uses of Mushroom 8
2.0 Thermal Properties 9
2.1 Basic Properties of Heat Transfer 12
2.1.1 Thermal conductivity of food material 12
2.1.2 Specific Heat Capacity 14
2.1.3 Thermal Diffusivity 15
2.4 Effect of Moisture on Thermal and Physical Properties 16
2.5 Physical Properties 17
2.5.1
Color 18
2.5.2 Density and Volume 19
2.5.3 Texture 20
2.5.4 Moisture Content 21
2.5.5 Shape and Size 21
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Method 23
3.1 Source of Raw Material 23
3.2 Sample Preparation 23
3.3 Analytical Procedure 23
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination 23
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination 25
3.4 Thermal properties Determination 25
3.4.1 Determination of Thermal conductivity 25
3.4.2 Determination of Specific Heat Capacity 25
3.4.3 Determination of thermal diffusivity 26
References 27
2.5.2 Density and Volume 19
2.5.3 Texture 20
2.5.4 Moisture Content 21
2.5.5 Shape and Size 21
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Method 23
3.1 Source of Raw Material 23
3.2 Sample Preparation 23
3.3 Analytical Procedure 23
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination 23
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination 25
3.4 Thermal properties Determination 25
3.4.1 Determination of Thermal conductivity 25
3.4.2 Determination of Specific Heat Capacity 25
3.4.3 Determination of thermal diffusivity 26
References 27
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For many years mushrooms have been consumed; not only
as a part of normal diet, but also a delicacy due to its unique taste and
flavor. It’s is rich in dietary fiber, minerals as well as vitamins, normally
in thiamin, riboflavin, ascorbic acid and vitamin D2, but it is low
in calories and fat (Mittla et al., 2000; Chi et al., 2006 ; Teichmann et al.,
2007). In addition it has been attributed with many medicinal properties,
such as reducing cholesterol, lowering blood pressure, anti-tumor,
antimicrobial and improving liver function (choi et al; 2006; Regular and Siwulski,
2007). However, it is highly perishable and has a short shelf- life, thus
further processing is required to increase its storage potential. There are
many methods for processing of mushroom. Such processing includes pickling in
vinegar, canning and drying. Thermal processing is generally applied to extend
shelf life of frozen products (chol et al; 2006).
The process
design for mushroom processing requires properties such as thermal and physical
properties.
These properties strongly depend on temperature,
chemical composition and state of the product. (Becker and Fricke, 1999;
Tansakul and Lumyong, 2008) As food and agricultural products have
individual composition, the thermal and physical properties are also different.
Charm (1998) reported that accurate understandings of those proportions
of food materials for processing are required and necessary for equipment
design, manufacturing of food product, ensuring quality of final product and
prediction of process. Data on thermal and physical
proportion of various food products have been widely reported in the
literature, however, data on some Nigeria mushroom were not found.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to determine the thermo-physical
properties of some mushroom varieties.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
Mushroom (Amanita I4uscar!a) is the fleshy,
spore- bearing fruiting body of a fungus, produced above the ground on soil or
on its food source.
Mushroom structure begins after a spore has settled on
a suitable substrate, notably the soil, composite, rotten woods and on tree
trunks. It sends out filaments into every crack, which grow and spread as they
feed on organic materials. (BarriI ;1999). The process
continues for a longtime, with out being visible above the ground, when the
mass of filaments reaches a considerable size, the hyphae form little tangled
knots, which are the rudiments of the future mushroom. As a whole, the hyphae
filaments flows towards the centers of the entity till each mass grows every
rapidly that, it grows up as a mushroom over night. This growth is actually as
a result of a transfer of protoplasmic materials from the hyphae to the
mushroom. If mushroom is teased apart, it is found to consist mainly of a
compacted mass of cotton wool like filaments, which extend from the base of the
stalk, into the surrounding soil as an extensive and loosely constructed
network. Filaments are called hyphae and a mass of hyphae called Mycelium.
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MUSHROOM
Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of member of
the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and type
species is the field mushroom Agaricus campestric. Not all member of the
order Agaricales provide mushroom fruit bodies and many other gilled
fungi, collectively occurs in order of the class Agaricomycetes
A typical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is deformed, colored parasitized fruit body of a lactarius, colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic Ascomycete. other mushrooms are not gilled and so it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Mushrooms are macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning and are classified into two types;
A typical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is deformed, colored parasitized fruit body of a lactarius, colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic Ascomycete. other mushrooms are not gilled and so it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Mushrooms are macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning and are classified into two types;
2.1.1 EDIBLE
MUSHROOM
Edible mushrooms are known as the meet o the vegetable
world and are eater as foods. They are used extensively in cooking in Korea,
china, Europe, japans and many other countries. (Stuntz et al; 1978).
Edibility may be defined by criteria that include
absence of poisonous effects on human and desirable taste and aroma. Mushrooms
can be dried and made readily for packaging, they can be frozen, freeze-dried,
dried by direct sunlight and canned for storage and preservation. Most mushroom
sold in supermarket have been commercially grown on mushroom farm and they
include the white crimini and the portebello, other cultivated species now
available also include shiltake, maitake or hen of the woods, oyster and the
Enoki. (Seref. T. et a! 2007).
2.1.2 NON
EDIBLE/TOXIC MUSHROOM
A number of species of mushroom are poisonous and
therefore cannot be eaten by man some of these non-edible mushrooms resemble
certain edible species in many essential respects and consuming them can be
fatal. Poisonous mushroom differs in their effect according to their chemical
nature of their toxins. These toxin causes varying percent of illness but are
not in the most product and deadly. These toxic mushrooms produce secondary
metabolites that are toxic, mind altering, antibiotic, or antiviral. Toxicity
likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp. One
defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of
chemicals that render the mushroom inedible.
2.2 NUTRITIONAL
QUALITY OF MUSHROOM
Mushrooms are known to be a valuable health food low
in caloric and high in vegetable protein, usually eaten either raw or cooked,
to provide garnish to a meal. Raw dietary mushrooms are rich source of
B-complex vitamins such as Thiamin (B1) riboflavin (B2),
Niacin (B3), panthothenic Acid (B5). They are also rich
in essential minerals, selenium, copper and potassium. Fat and carbohydrate of
low content are contained with absence
of vitamin C and sodium (Pang G. et al,
2009).
According to USDA Nutrient data base, the following
values were shown on a study of Agaricus species by Haas EM. et al; (2009).
NUTRITIONAL VALUE PER 100g
|
Energy
|
113kg (25 Kcal)
|
|
Carbohydrate
|
4.1g
|
|
Fat
|
0.1g
|
|
Thiamin (vitamin B1)
|
0.1mg(9%)
|
|
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
|
0.5mg(42%)
|
|
Nicin (vitamin B3)
|
3.8mg(25%)
|
|
Panthotheric Acid (Vitamin B5)
|
1.5mg(30%)
|
|
Vitamin C
|
Omg(0%)
|
|
Calcium
|
1.8mg(2%)
|
|
Phosphorus
|
120mg(17%)
|
|
Protein
|
2.5g.
|
|
Potassium
|
448mg(og)
|
|
Sodium
|
6mg(Og)
|
|
Zinc
|
1.1mg (12%)
|
Percentages are relative to US recommendation for
adults. Report also note that when exposed to ultra violet light the natural
ergo sterols in mushrooms produces vitamin D2. (Koyyalmudis’R et
a!, 2009). This process is now exploited for the functional foods retain
market. Miles PG, Chang S.T. (2004).
2.3 MEDICINAL
USES OF MUSHROOM
Mushrooms have long been used in medicine in many part
of the world. Such medicinal properties include lowering blood pressure, reducing
cholesterol, anti-tumor, antimicrobial and improving liver functions (Chol
et al;, 2006, Regula and siwu/ski, 2007). Until recently, the importance of
mushrooms and their extracts were dismissed out of hand by medical researchers
who saw few medical compounds of interests in some mushroom.
Researchers has focused on a group of fungal cell wall
polysaccharides known as b-(1-3) (1-6)-glucans, these polysaccharides can be physiologically
inert because the
digestive system breaks them into simple sugar. Many of these compounds are strongly immunopotentiating, that is they stimulate the production and activity of immune cell.
digestive system breaks them into simple sugar. Many of these compounds are strongly immunopotentiating, that is they stimulate the production and activity of immune cell.
The content of mushrooms include polysaccharide,
glycoprotein and proteoglycans modulate. Immune system responses and inhibit
tumor growth. Immunopotentiating b - glycans have shown significant anti-tumor
activating in vitro and some mushroom extracts have been shown to have
significantly lower rate of
mutagen-induced cancer. (Smith J.E, Rowan 14.J. 2002).
Medicinal
mushrooms isolate have been identified to show cardiovascular, antiviral,
antibacterial, ant diabetic, antinflammalary and antiparastic properties.
Currently, several extracts of mushroom have widespread used as adjust to
radiation treatment and chemotherapy. (Hawley C. 2010).
MUSHROOM PRESERVATION
Chilled storage (40c)
of mushroom from harvest to cooking help to maintain good quality (Gormley, 19975) by- reducing the
rate of bacterial growth and enzyme activity. The best method of preserving
mushrooms is to keep them at 40c, packed in containers, wrapped with
micro porous film. This can minimize
respiration reduce the humidity in the container and dimish spoilage (Maria et
al., 2004) sharma et a.,
3.0 THERMAL PROPERTIES
The need to have accurate data on thermal properties
of food materials especially as these vary with composition during processing
is ideal (Onweka, 2003). Most of the agricultural products of plant
animal origin are subjected to various kinds of thermal processing before they
are placed at the access of the consumers. It is upon the thermal properties of
the product that any change of temperature will largely depend (frlohsenin,
1980). Since specific heat and thermal conductivity of food materials
depend on the composition of food systems and their relative concentrations,
very often empirical relationships resulting from experimental investigations
are presented; which may have the limitations of being specific to certain food
materials. The variations of the thermal properties with temperature, which may
often not be a simple direct relationship, means that average values for a
given temperature range are sometimes used. (Onwuka; 2003).
Specific heat is an important parameter ii heat
treatment applications where germination and viability may be endangered if time
of heating is exceeded. Heat treatment of wheat, corn and legumes has shown
some problem in stimulating germination. The fungus causing the decay of onions
in storage vanishes in the temperature range of 40-60°C. (Gasnikow, 1960). Heat
treatment of peaches has shown promise in delaying the decay of the fruit in
storage and improving the quality retention. In fruits and vegetables the
action of enzymes and microorganisms causing deterioration can be controlled by
low temperature.
Heating or cooling of agricultural products may be
accomplished by the method of convention, conduction and radiation. (Mohsenin,
1980). A heat balance for a heating or cooling capacity of the materials at
any time during a heating or cooling process requires the knowledge of the thermal
characteristics of the material.
For heat treatment processes associated with
processing, heat is conducted within the product and precautions are taken to
preserve the nutrients, quality and viability, thereby observing the time, temperature
and nature of product.
3.1 BASIC
PROPERTIES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer between a solid and its surrounding can
take place by conduction, convention and radiation if there is no appreciable
movement of surrounding field and fluid is not transparent, heat transfer is by
conduction and it takes place under influence of a temperature gradient only
.if solid itself or fluid surrounding the solid is transparent, the heat
transfer is both conduction and radiation where there is relationship between
solid and surrounding medium, heat transfer by convention is added (Monsenin1
1980).
3.1.1 THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF FOOD MATERIAL
The thermal conductivity of a material is the property
of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat. Most food products are
made up primarily of the solid and water components thus most thermal
conductivity expressions incorporate the percentage water content especially to
emphasize the significant increase in the overall value during a phase change.
When the water portion changes from liquid to solid (Onwuka, 2003). The
thermal conductivities of some common foods are 1.35 x 102, 0.097-0.133,
0.15, 0.491, 1.37, 0.0324 + 0.329mw and 0.564 + 0.0858mw: for freeze
dried peach, whole soy beans, starch, beef, frozen beef, fish and sorghum
respectively are all at °C except freeze- dried Peach which is at -10°C (Lewis,
1990). The thermal conductivity decreases as the food become drier. Freeze-
dried materials, which are usually very porous, have extremely low thermal
conductivities. During freeze drying, heat is normally transferred to the
frozen material through the dried layer (Lewis, 1990). Thermal
conductivities of various components have been giver by Mi/es et al; (1963) as
follows;
Ka (air) = 0.25; Kp (protein) = 0.20; Kc (carbohydrate)
= 0.245; Ks (solids) = 0.26; Kf (fat) 0.18; Kw (water) = 0.6; Ki (ice) = 2.24. Riedle
(1949) proposed model for thermal conductivities for fruits, juices and
sugar only. Sweat (1974) also proposed model for thermal conductivities
for fruits and vegetables with water contents greater than 60o. The
CP = 1.675 + 0.0025m has been used successfully with a
good measure of accuracy for several heat products in the moisture content
range of 26 to 100% and for fruit juices of moisture contents greater
than 5Q%
A similar expression by Charm (1978) based on
the components of the food is as follows;
Calculation;
CP = 2.094xf + 1.256xs + 4.187xm.
CP = 2.094xf + 1.256xs + 4.187xm.
Where the values of 2.094, 1.256xs +4.187 are specific
heats of the fat, solids and water present in the product respectively.
Although specific heat is a function of temperature, its variation is not as
significant as that of gas, the value however, for any food material, depend to
a large extent on its composition and very often average values are which gives
at specific temperatures or over a known temperature range. (Onwuka, 2003).
3.1.3 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
The thermal diffusivity of a material is a material
property that describes the rate at which heat diffuses through a body. It is a
function of the body’s thermal conductivity. The S.1. Unit is meter square per
second (M2/s). The expression of Lewis (1987) was used for thermal
diffusivity.
Calculation;
a = k
a = k
pCp
Where;
a = Thermal diffusivity
K = Thermal conductivity
r = Density
Cp = specific heat
3.4 EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON THERMAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Mohsenin (1980), considered the effect of moisture migration, he noted that such mass
transfer occur only when a temperature difference exists in a permeable
moisture medium. In most cases, their effect is one of evaporation in the warm
region, transmission of the vapour by diffusion to handling of the material (Mohsenin, 1980).
When physical properties of grains, seeds, fruits and vegetables, eggs,
forage and fibers are studied by considering either bulk or individual unit of
the material. It is important to have an accurate shape, size, volume, specific
gravity, surface area and other physical characteristics which may be
considered as engineering parameters for that product (I4onsenin, 1980). Information
on physical properties of food materials is vital to engineers as well as food
scientist and others. Saravacos and Kostaropulus (1995) observed that
the physical structure of food product plays a role in field where modern
technological processes are applied for the generation of food raw material and
production of food. These physical properties include;
35.1 COLOR
35.1 COLOR
Color is a very sensitive property of food material which
tells much of the other properties of material hence affecting product
acceptability. During food processing it is common to notice desirable and
undesirables changes in color of food product, measures are taken to ensure
that the reaction that result in desirable color change are optimized while
those that result in undesirable color changes are carefully studied and
prevented.
3.5.2 DENSITY AND VOLUME
The density and volume of food material are of great
interest to a food processor. Researchers have been able to determine the
density of several food materials and its response to some changes in the
composition of food material. Density is used in quality determination during
processing operations. The irregular shape of agricultural products present
problems in volume and density measurement and because of irregular shape of
mushrooms volume is determined by water displacement. (Mohsenin, 1980).
Density plays an important role in application such as
drying and storing of Hay (Day and Panda, (1965). Separation of
undesirable materials (Maak, 1957).
And quality evaluation of product such as peas, potatoes (Gould,1957)
are some examples where density of material has found application.
3.5.3 TEXTURE
The texture of a food material plays a major role in
processing of food material plays a major role in processing are predetermined.
Texture are defined as the group of physical characteristics that arise from the structural element of the food. The textural characteristics of the raw material are of great importance the requirement of the raw material must be robust to withstand the mechanical stress to which it is subjected during operation, and then raw material must withstand the processing condition so as to yield a final Product of desired texture food texture can be reduced to measurement of resistance to force (Potter and Hotchkiss, (1995). Hence texture is a paramount in selecting food material.
Texture are defined as the group of physical characteristics that arise from the structural element of the food. The textural characteristics of the raw material are of great importance the requirement of the raw material must be robust to withstand the mechanical stress to which it is subjected during operation, and then raw material must withstand the processing condition so as to yield a final Product of desired texture food texture can be reduced to measurement of resistance to force (Potter and Hotchkiss, (1995). Hence texture is a paramount in selecting food material.
3.5.4 MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content is the quality of water contained in
a food material. It is used in a wide range of scientific areas and is
expressed as a ratio which can range form completely dry (0) to the value of
the materials porosity at saturation. It is the most commonly measured
properties of food materials and is important to food scientist for microbial
stability, food quality and food processing operation. Moisture content of food
material is important to consider the food is suitable before consumption,
because it affects the physical and chemical aspects of food which relates to
the freshness and stability of food for a long period of time.
3.5.5 SHAPE AND SIZE
Size and shape of food to be processed are of great
concerned to a food processor. Some food raw materials are sorted into sizes by
passing through screens, which retain products of specific sizes and dimension.
Shapes and size are very important in the design of machine to replace hand
operation (Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995)
The size of food materials is also important during thermal processing. During treatment uniform heating is easily achieved in products of small size unit, because of the ease with which the lowest heating point receive the batch hence preventing over of under heating which would result from high temperature difference between the lowest heating point and surface of product which receive more heat.
The size of food materials is also important during thermal processing. During treatment uniform heating is easily achieved in products of small size unit, because of the ease with which the lowest heating point receive the batch hence preventing over of under heating which would result from high temperature difference between the lowest heating point and surface of product which receive more heat.
In defining the shape of food material some dimension
parameters of object are to be measured. The irregular shape of many food
product present difficult problems in volume and density measurement. Such
simple technique as this displacement can result in applicable errors, if food
material is very small in size.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL
Six varieties of mushrooms sample will be purchased
from kpirikpiri market in Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
3.2 Sample Preparation
The samples will be prepared by sorting and cleaning
the mushroom. This will be done by placing the mushrooms on a flat clean
surface area and the infested ones removed. The sorted mushrooms sample will be
cleaned by brushing.
3.3
Analytical Procedure
3.3.1 Determination
of Moisture Content.
Moisture o the mushroom sample will be determine
according to AOAC (2000) using the Hot oven method The Petri dish will
be washed and dried in the over at 100°C for a period of 10 mins. and cooled in
a dessicator. The dried and cooled dish will be weighed. About five grams (5g)
of the prepared mushroom sample will be weighed with a weighing.
balance
and dried in drying oven at 105°c for 3 hrs, cooled in a dessicator and then
weighed. Ca/cu/at/on
Moisture (%) = W2 - W3 X 100
W2 – W1 1
Where,
W1 - Weight of Petri dish
W2 - Weight of Petri dish + sample before drying
W3 - Weight of Petri dish + sample after drying
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination
W1 - Weight of Petri dish
W2 - Weight of Petri dish + sample before drying
W3 - Weight of Petri dish + sample after drying
3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination
The density of the mushroom sample ‘ill be determined
using the simple flotation principle. About 10g of samples will be weighed
using an electronic weighing balance. The 10g will be put into a 250m1
measuring cylinder. The cylinder will be tapped gently several times and
difference in
Volume noted.
Ca/cu/at/on
Density
= mass
of sample (kg)
Volume
of sample (m3)
34 Thermal properties Determination
3.4.1 Determination of Thermal conductivity The thermal conductivity of the mushroom samples will
be determined by the thermal conductivity method of sweat
(1974)
Calculation
K = 0.148 + 0.00493W
Where
K = Thermal conductivity (JSm1 °C)
W Moisture content (%)
3.4.2 Determination of Specific Heat Capacity
The
specific heat capacity of the mushrooms sample
will determined using the expression as described b charm
(1978) which is based on the components of Food.
Calculation
CP = 2.094xf + 1.256xs + 4.l8xm
Where;
will determined using the expression as described b charm
(1978) which is based on the components of Food.
Calculation
CP = 2.094xf + 1.256xs + 4.l8xm
Where;
Cp = Specific
heat capacity
Xf, Xs and Xm = Mole fractions of fat, solid and water (% moisture content present respectively
3.4.3 Determination of thermal diffusivity
The thermal diffusivity of the mushroom sample will be determined using the expression as described by lewis
(1989).
Calculation
a = K
rCp
Where,
K = thermal conductivity
Xf, Xs and Xm = Mole fractions of fat, solid and water (% moisture content present respectively
3.4.3 Determination of thermal diffusivity
The thermal diffusivity of the mushroom sample will be determined using the expression as described by lewis
(1989).
Calculation
a = K
rCp
Where,
K = thermal conductivity
r = Density
Cp = Specific heat capacity
a = Thermal diffusivity
Cp = Specific heat capacity
a = Thermal diffusivity
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