4.2.1: Effect of processing method and storage time
on the specific gravity of palm oil sample
The specific gravity of palm oil
extracted through fermentation and boiling slightly increased with in crease in
storage time. The specific gravity of fermented and boiled palm oil ranged from
0.910 to 0.925 and 0.912 to 0.913 respectively for a period of six months. The
fermented palm oil stored at six months had the highest specific gravity (Fig.
4.1).
The statistical analysis showed that
there were no significant difference (p>0.05) in the specific gravity of the
oil sample as influenced by processing method and storage time (Table 1). The
values obtained were closely related to the standard range of 0.898 – 0.907
approved by Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON, 2000). The observed
increasing trend in specific gravity with storage time may be attributed to the
formation of polymeric fractions of higher molecular weight (Rutowski, 1983).
The
relationship existing between specific gravity and storage time of palm oil
extracted through fermentation techniques was parabolic (eqn4.1) while it was
found to be linear for palm oil from boiled palm fruits (eqn4.2).
S.G
(F) = -0.0002t2 + 0.0038t + 0.9095 R2
= 0.9724 …4.1
S.G (B) 0.0002t +
0.9119 R2
= 0.8 …4.2
Where
t is the storage time.
4.2.2: Effect of processing method and storage
time on the Free Fatty Acid of palm oil sample.
The
effect of storage on the Free Fatty Acid (FFA) of palm oil obtained through
different methods is presented in Table 4.1.and Fig.4.2. Results indicate that
there was a remarkable increase in FFA of oil from the fermention process than the one from boiling process throughout the storage period. Badmus (1987) noted that
stripping of palm fruits from the bunch is dependent on weakening the strength
of attachment (bond) of the fruits to the bunch. The weakening of attachment
bond is achieved in traditional method by sectioning bunches and heaping them
for several days which have been found to result in higher free fatty acids
(FFA) contents after the extraction of palm oil as observed by Orji (2006).
This may partly explain why all the oil samples from the semi mechanized palm
oil mills and palm oil obtained from local producers have higher FFA values
than the sample from the mechanized palm oil mills.(Badmus,1987)
Orji
(2006) noted that the longer the harvested fruits were allowed to stay before
they were processed, the higher is the FFA of the oil extracted from such
fruits. This assertion is not surprising since ripe palm oil fruits have been
reported to contain autolipolytic enzyme which starts to split the fruit oil to
fatty acid and glycerol once the fruit is bruised (Bek-Nielsen, 1977; Esechie,
1978; Hartley, 1988). This may also explain why the oil samples extracted
through the traditional method that employs fermentation has higher FFA than all
the other oil samples since the fruits were never boiled before processing.
Although the FFA of palm oil extracted after boiling was lower than the oil
extracted after fermentation, the range of values of the FFA after storing for
6 months (3.38 – 10.15%) (Table 1) is relatively higher than expected value of 3.5 as specified by son (2000)
It is however not surprising that values FFA as high as 3.38 – 10.15% were
obtained from oil samples from the boiling method because the fresh fruit
bunches (FFBs) may not have been properly cooked to the expected processing
temperature and time to inactivate the lipases.
The
relationship existing between free fatty acid (FFA) and storage time of palm
oil extracted through fermentation and boiling techniques were found to be
linear and can be represented as
FFA
(F) = 0.063t 2+ 3.4392t + 22.328 R2
= 0.9963----4.3
FFA
(B) = -0.0352t2 + 1.3677t + 3.2994 R2
= 0.9947---4.4
Where
t is the storage time.
Equation
4.3 and 4.4 representing the fermentation and boiling process respectively.
4.2.3. Effect of processing method and storage time on
the peroxide value of palm oil.
The peroxide value determines the extent to which the oil has undergone
rancidity, thus it could be used as an indication of the quality and stability
of fats and oils (Ekwu and Nwagu, 2004). The peroxide value (meq/kg) of the
palm oil extracted from fermented and boiled palm fruits increased with
increase in storage time respectively (Fig. 4.3), with the oil from
fermentation process having the higher peroxide values (from 3.5meq/kg to
5.8meq/kg during the 6 months of storage) than oil from boiling process (from
1.5meq/kg to 4.05meq/kg during the 6 months of storage) (table 1). The
statistical analysis showed that there were significant difference (p<0.05)
in the Peroxide Value of the oil sample as influenced by processing method and
storage time (Table 1).
Steady
increase in the peroxide value of the oil with storage time could be due to
increase in the extent of oxidation resulting in increase in the formation of
hydro peroxides during fat oxidation. The observation that the peroxide values
of oil from fermentation process were higher than those from boiled process
could be due to the fact that initial extent of hydrolysis was higher in the
product of the fermentation process. Although peroxides are possibly not
directly responsible for the taste and odour of rancid fats, their
concentration is often useful in assessing the extent to which the rancidity
has advanced.
As
presented in (Fig. 4.3), the peroxide values range of 1.5 – 5.80meq/Kg and are
lower than the standard minimum value of 10meq/Kg specified by SON (2000) and
NIS (1992). This implies that the oil stored up to 6 months falls within
acceptable standard. The increase in peroxide value with increase in storage
time could indicate the onset of primary oxidation due to lipid degrading
enzymes like peroxidase and lipoxygenase (Onyeka et al., 2005) which
progressed with time.
The relationship existing between peroxide value, PV(meq/kg) and storage
time t(month) was found to
be linear and can be represented with the following equation:
PV(f) = 0.395t
+ 3.39 R2 = 0.9852 ……
4.5
PV (b) = 0.4475t + 1.62 R2 = 0.9453 … 4.6
Where
eqn. 4.5 is for Fermentation process and
eqn. 4.6 is for Boiling process, it is the storage time.
4.2.4. Effect of
processing method and storage time on the Iodine Value palm oil
Iodine value is an index of the
degree of unsaturation, which is one of the most important analytical
characteristic of oil. Data on changes in the iodine value of the palm oil is
presented in Fig. 4.4. It was observed from the Figure, that iodine value
increased during storage of the palm oil from the two processes studied.
Minimum iodine value was 26.14Wij’s initially in oil from fermentation process
and 3.81Wij’s in oil from boiling process. The values increased to 34.77 and
37.05Wij’s for oil from fermented and boiled palm oil respectively at the end
of the 6 months storage period (Table 4.1). The changes in iodine value of palm
oil samples may be attributed to propagation of auto oxidation process where
hydro peroxides are formed from free radicals in fatty acids generated by
initiation stage of the auto oxidation reaction. The iodine values obtained
were within the limits of standard range of 45 – 53Wij’s, recommended by SON
(2000) and NIS (1992). However, the values obtained indicate that the oil
samples are highly unsaturated and therefore susceptible to oxidation. The
addition of antioxidants may be necessary to prolong the storage stability of
the oils.
The relationship existing between
iodine value, IV (wiji’s) and storage time t(month) was found to
be linear for both the fermented and boiled palm oil and can be represented
with the following equation:
IV (f) =
0.395t + 3.39 R2 =
0.9852 …………… 4.7
IV (b) =
0.4475t + 1.62 R2
= 0.9453 ………….… 4.8
Where
eqn. 4.7 is for Fermention process and
eqn. 4.8 is for Boiling process, t is the storage time.
4.2.5. Effect of processing method and
storage time on the Saponification Value palm oil.
The result on the effect of
processing method and storage time revealed that the saponification value of
the palm oil samples increased with increase in storage time (Fig.4.5).
Saponification values (SV) obtained for the palm oil samples ranged from 181.42
to 350.31 mgKOH/g and from 175.91 to 189.54mgKOH/g for fermentation and boiling
methods respectively (Table 4.1). The values are within the expected range of
195 – 205mgKOH/g of oil for edible palm oils as specified by SON (2000) and NIS
(1992). As from time of 4 months and above, the saponification values of oil
from fermentation process were greater than > 205mgKOH/g oil, hence not
recommended for used in edible purposes after 4months storage without refining.
The high saponification value of the palm oils from fermentation process is an
indication that the oils will be most suitable for soap making. This also
suggests that the average molecular weight of the oil was low.
The relationship
existing between saponification value and storage time was found to be linear
and could be expressed using the following equation:
SV (f) = 28.588t
+ 158.2 R2 =
0.8932…... … 4.9 SV (b) = 2.159t + 177.06 R2 = 0.95 ……… 4.10
Where
eqn. 4.9 is for oil from Fermentation process and eqn.4.10 is for the Boiling
process, and t is the storage time.
4.2.6. Effect of processing method and storage time on
the Freezing
point of palm oil.
Results
presented in Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.6 show that the freezing point slightly
increased with storage time for both procedures. This shows that the component
with the lowest freezing point did not significantly
change with storage time. However, the products from fermentation process had
higher freezing point (26-280C) than those from boiling process(23-240C).
This could be due to the fact that boiling process had the capability of
extracting higher broad spectrum of components including the poly unsaturates
which had the lower freezing points.
The relationship
existing between freezing point and storage time was could be expressed using
the following equation:
FP(f) = 0.2t + 26.9 R2=0.8………4.11
FP(b)= 0.0.525t+23.05 R2=0.9333……4.12
4.2.7. Effect
of processing method and storage time on the Melting Point of palm oil.
The experimental
results showed an increase in the melting points of palm oil from both the fermented and boiled palm fruit. The
increase in melting point of oil from fermentation process was only from 29 – 30oC
for the 6 months storage period while the melting point of oil from boiling process
increased from 29 – 37oC. The high melting point observed for oil
from boiling process could be due to the presence of some high melting
saturated components in the oil. By boiling the palm fruit, the portion of the
unsaturated fatty acids increased but these fatty acids do not take part in any
chemical change in the oil and do not interact with triacylglycerol as they are
of similar chemical composition (Beniumea et al., 2008). Any change in
the chemical composition of the molecular species of triacylglycerol would have
changed the other physical properties of the oil as the physical and chemical
properties of palm oils are the function of fatty acids in triglycerides (Tan
and Man, 2002; Fogila et al., 1993). The melting behavior of the oils
(boiled and fermented) varies due to the different characteristics and
composition of fatty acids in terms of triglycerides in both processed palm
fruit (Fasina et al., 2008). There were significant (P<0.05) difference
in the melting points of the processed oil.
The relationship
existing between melting point (MP, oC)
and storage time (tmonth) was found to be linear and could be expressed with
the following equation:
MP =
1.3t + 29.1 R2
= 0.9941 … 4.13
MP = 0.405t + 25.96 R2 = 0.8707 … 4.14
Where eqn.4.13
is for Boiling process and eqn.4.14 is for Fermention process.
4.2.8. Effect
of processing method on the stability of
palm oil.
The
stability of palm oil were measured by the rate of change of key properties
such as the free fatty acid and peroxide value with time as presented in Table 4.2. it should be noted that process of oxidation
and hydrolysis normally go through induction, propagation and termination steps
and antioxidants can help in the early
on set of termination.
The samples from boiling process
displayed higher hydrolytic stability having lower rate of change of free fatty
acid with storage time. (∆FFA/∆t) This could be due to the fact that the
product from fermentation process experience hydrolysis during the fermentation
period and this hydrolysis had already gotten through the initiation and
propagation stages prior to the oil production where as the boiling process
experience less hydrolysis which may still be in the induction period prior to
oil production.
From the results it can also be seen
that for both processes, the stability
decreased with storage time up to 4 months after which it increased. The
decrease in stability up to 4 months was as a result of the propagation step of free fatty acid liberation being
higher than the termination step, but after the 4 months the termination may
have become predominant leading to the reduction in FFA liberation and observed
increase in hydrolytic stability.
The oxidative stability of palm oil from
the fermentation process were higher than those of oil from boiling process.
This can be seen from the fact that the peroxide value increased at a higher rate
in the oil from boiling process as shown in Table 4.2. The reason for this is
probably due to the fact that the boiling operation destroyed some heat labile
antioxidants which could have aided in the suppression of the oxidation
reaction where as the fermentation process did not.
On the effect of storage time, the
oxidative stability decreased with storage time up to 4 months after which it
increased with time. This is similar to the observation on the variation of
hydrolytic stability with storage time. Similar reason can be deduced. In other
words, the propagation step controlled the oxidation reaction up to 4 months
while the termination step took over after 4 months. Furthermore the reaction
of the peroxides to other products such as aldehydes and ketones may have set
in after 4 months storage resulting in decrease in observed rate of increase in
peroxide value.
4.3 CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
The results obtained from
the study showed that the quality of the palm oil samples investigated were
within the standards recommended by SON (2000) and NIS (1992). It is therefore
reasonable to conclude that palm oil samples investigated were not contaminated
or adulterated and also the processing and storage methods employed were
adequate. The results also indicated the suitability of the oil samples for
domestic or industrial applications as well as export trade.
From the result conducted
over 6 months period, it can be seen that there was no significant difference
in the specific gravity of palm, from the two processing methods. However there
were slight increase with storage time up to 6 months with boiling process
resulting in oil of S.G 0.912-0.913 while oil from fermentation process had S.G
0.910-0.925. Oil from boiling process had
lower FFA (3.384 to 10.152%). Than those from fermentation process (22.56 to
45.00%). the peroxide values (PV) of oil from fermentation process (3.50 to
5.80meq/kg) were higher than oil from boiling process (1.50 to 4.05meq/kg). Also oil from fermentation process had higher
saponification values (181.42 to 350.31 mgKOH/g) than oil from boiling process
(175.91 to 189.54 mgKOH/g) and higher
iodine value (IV) ranging from 28.14 to 37.05 Wiji’s as against 1V of 3.81 to
34.77 Wiji’s obtained from the boiling process.
Looking at the freezing point (FP) and
meeting point (MP) values, it can be seen that the FP/MP range (D3oC)
of oil from fermentation process varied from 26/29oC to 28/30oC(D2oC)
for the 6 months period while that of oil from boiling process varied from
23/29oC (D6oC) to 24/37oC.
(D13oC).
Based on this observations it can be concluded that the high temperature involved in the boiling process enabled the liquefaction and extraction of waxes and more saturated components which is responsible for lower IV,PV,FFA and extraction of higher M.W components (C16-C20) responsible for lower S.V. Furthermore the boiling process was also able to extract some poly unsaturated (linoleic) such as Dienoic (C18).This suggest the presence of many components ranging from low temperature freezing (23o to 24oc) and higher temperature melting (29oc to 37oc) for storage time from 0 to 6 months.
On the other hand the fermentation
process was only able to extract a narrower range of components extractable at
room temperature. This is responsible for the lower FP/MP range. A
chromatographic analysis or fractionation of these oil samples will throw more
light into the observations of this work and hence is recommended for further
studies. Also a study on the effect of boiling time on the characteristics of
palm oil is recommended to optimize results.
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APPENDIX A
Table A.1:
Dependent Variable: Free Fatty Acid
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method
storage
Processing Method * storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
496.743
142.668
.336
10014.636
3474.032
|
3
3
8
16
15
|
165.581
47.556
.042
|
3.943E3
1.133E3
|
.000
.000
|
a. R Squared = 1.000 (Adjusted R Squared
= 1.000)
TableA.2
Dependent Variable: specific gravity
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method
storage
Processing Method * storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
.000
. 000
.000
.001
. 13.408
.001
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
.000
5.692E-5 4.158E.5
9.000E-5
|
1.469
.632
.462
|
.260
.615
.717
|
a. R Squared = .373 (Adjusted R Squared
= -.176)
Table A.3:
Dependent Variable: melting point
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method storage
Processing Method * storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
135.722
59.368
16.167
6.440
14701.820
217.698
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
135.722
19.789
5.389
.805
|
6.149E4
6. 548E4
2.151E4
|
.000
.000
.000
|
a. R Squared = 1.000 (Adjusted R Squared
= 1.000)
TableA.4:
Dependent Variable: peroxide Value
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method
storage
Processing Method * storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
10.401
14.457
.352
.581
253.046
25.790
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
10.401
4.819
.117
.073
|
143.259
66.377
1.616
|
.000
.000
.261
|
a. R Squared = .977 (Adjusted R Squared
= 958)
Table A.5:
Dependent Variable: saponification value
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method storage
Processing Method * storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
14604.723
20706.803
16088.639
.266
782408.331
51400.431
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
14604.723
6902.268
5362.880
.033
|
4.392E5
2.076E5
1.613E5
|
.000
.000
.000
|
a. R Squared = 1.000 (Adjusted R Squared
= 1.000)
Table A.6:
Dependent Variable: freezing point
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method
storage
Processing Method
* storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
132.250
2.750
.750
2.872
11480 .872
138.622
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
132.250
.917
.250
.359
|
368.333
2.553
6.96
|
.000
.129
.580
|
a. R Squared = 979 (Adjusted R Squared =
961)
Table A.7:
Dependent Variable: iodine Value
|
Source
|
Type 111 sum
of squares
|
df
|
Mean Square
|
F
|
Sig.
|
|
Processing Method
storage
Processing Method
* storage
Error
Total
Corrected Total
|
316.662
1011.625
332.403
.041
12607.122
1660.731
|
1
3
3
8
16
15
|
316.662
337.208
110.801
.005
|
6.149E4
6. 548E4
2.151E4
|
.000
.000
.000
|
a. R Squared = 1.000 (Adjusted R Squared
= 1.000)