1.3 RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
The following questions will guide
the research:
1.
Why
do people move to urban center?
2.
Is
the cost of living at urban center better than rural area?
3.
What
type of social amenities do you enjoy in town?
4.
What
are the major problems wising as a result of the impact of urbanization on the
socio-economic development of Ezzamgbo indigenes?
5.
Do
urbanization and rural-urban migration affect the socio-economic life of Ezzamgbo
community?
6.
How
can the problem be resolved?
1.4 OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
The
general objective of this study is to examine the impact of urbanization on the
socio-economic activities or development of Ezzamgbo indigenes. As we earlier
mentioned, urbanization in currently one of the most widespread phenomena
processes taking place in Nigeria today. In view of this therefore the study
seeks.
1.
To
unfold the pre-urban socio-economic activities of Ezzamgbo indigenes.
2.
The
factors responsible for urbanization and now these have acted on the socio-economic
activities of Ezzamgbo indigenes.
3.
To
identify major problems wising as a
result of impact of urbanization on the socio-economic development of Ezzamgbo indigenes.
4.
To
make meaningful recommendations and suggestion on how such problems could be
resolved.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
This study, it is hoped will
contribute immensely to the understanding of the effect of Urbanization on the
socio-economic activities of Ezzamgbo indigenes. Much work has been done on the
impact of Urbanization on rural areas, but none has been in Ezzamgbo rural
community as a case study, this study will therefore, serve as a pioneer study
in this area.
The study will be theoretically
significant, as a number of atternpts to document the effects of Urbanization on rural ureas is ywe. In this
study, it is hoped that the peculiwity of the Urbanization effect on the
socio-economic lives of Ezzamgbo will be unveiled. It will also be of relevance
to students of rural sociology as well as researchers such as the NGO’S
community based organization and local government administrators etc.
This study will also be of benefit
to social psychologists who we interested in studying the dynamics of group
interaction. This study then confirms and
attests to Talcott parson’s Pattern variables. It shows human relationship is dominated by
economic and social exchanges of values based on the principles of equity.
1.6 DEFINITION
OF CONCEPTS
Urbanization could be seen as a shift from animate to
inanimate of production. This definition implies that, urbanization is the
movement from animals production like donkeys, cattle and even manual to
inanimate way of production that involves the use of machines. (warren Thompson
1985).
DEVELOPMENT
Development for the purpose of this research
would be taken to mean the processes of change particularly change of a
structural native, towards the
enhancement of a people’s socio-economic
welfare and the fulfillment.
It involves the society’s
transformation through its institutions, organizations, social rules, customary
usage and the work attitudes of individuals to an extent that makes the society
more and more positively responsive to
socially desired modern changes (emelukule 1978).
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
A combination of various social and
academic characteristic. The social life of the people refers to the way they
live in the society, the social
interaction and their social structure, the socialization pattern, values and
norms.
It includes the facilitates they enjoy, the population shift as well as the
evils prevalent in the area.
The economic life of the people
refers to the productive, consumption and distributive activities of the
people. Agriculture, trade and other territory occupation provide a living for
the people.
RURAAL
This
term refers to population living in the area of low density and small
settlement. It is characterized by primary agricultural production. An example
is ohaukwu neighboring communities who migrate to Ezzamgbo town for survival of
the fittest.
MIGRATION
Migration
involves the movement of people from a particular residence or settlement to
another settlement at a particular time. Rural-urban migration therefore
involves the shifting of residence from rural to urban areas.
URBAN ECOLOGY
A
sociological approach to studying cities that examines how the social uses of
urban land are the results of interactions between various groups of people and
their physical/geographic environment.
COMMUNITY
A
population knit together by common values and interests relatively dense and enduring
ties frequent face to face interactions, and a sense of being close to one
another.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE
REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Many scholars have done very useful work
on the impact of urbanization on rural areas. Through most of those writers are
outside Nigeria, it is hoped that the materials under review, will provide necessary
comparative information for the understanding of the impact of urbanization on
the socio-economic development of Ezzamgbo indigenes.
These have been arguments by scholars
who define broadly the perspective in which could view the role of cities in
third world development.
Richard D. Kambest (1962:117) doing is
survey on the impact of urban society upon village life in India, asserted that cities act as catalysts, introducing suitable changes in
rural areas. This means that life in the cities influence villages and bring
about changes in the rural people.
Davis (1955) and others have vigorously
defended the viewpoint that urbanization is a concomitant of transformations in a society.
The main agreement of this school of thought revolves around the fact that, the
components of urbanization in the third world we of easting in a different mix
from the manner they operated in the west. Urbanization in the third world is largely
a product of mass rural-urban migration which has accelerated in the last two
decades because the rural areas we little affected by modernization influence
and lack of opportunities for self-improvement. It is in view of this that much
of the literature on migration in African has stressed the fact that economic
factor plays a dominant role in the
migrants decision to leave the rural areas to the urban centers.
Little
(1977) observed that “more generally, a person requires money to live in a
civilized way, to buy good clothes, manufactured products and to acquire modern
housing. It is needed for taxes, to pay dues to local association, to educate oneself or one’s
children and so on. The present of industries in these areas have encouraged migration, people are attracted to the town
because at the prospect of employment.
J.H. Wob and Edmund D.E.S. Brunner
(1975:167) in their own contribution wrote, “out at the end of the road stands
the city with its smokestocks and its jagged sky line, the traffic on the great
Amercian highway moves into the two directions towards the country. Moreover,
it is not simple a physical highway for the interplay of ideas and attitudes.
This implies that ideas and attitudes are transported from the urban center to
the rural areas.
A.M. O’ conner (1971:159) argued that
the change that is commonly associated with economic development is the growth
of towns and cities, and such urban growth is undoubtedly and of the most
widespread processes taking place in tropical African today. The towns have
been expanding rapidly throughout most of this century and the region now
roughly doubt every ten (10) or twelve (12) years. This a more rapid rate of
increase than in any other large region
of the world and is in some ways a rather disturbing phenomenon. The growth had
taken place from such a low base that the preparation of the whole population that
lives in towns is still small, yet these towns play a role in the life of most
African countries quite out of preparation for the size of their population.
They act as local points in the political social and economic affairs of each
country and even people who have never visited a town are profoundly affected
by decisions made there and by transaction undertaken there.
Mackensie (1925) a classical social
ecologist have noted processes common to urbanization in many societies, they
include concentration, segregations, invasion and succession. Concentration,
the first phase of urbanization occurs when many people settle in a relatively
small space. This phase leads to over crow ding in turn promoting a
decentralization of activities, so that people and industries spread from the
center of the city to outlying areas with the decentralization of activities
comes economgical differentiation, in specific with particular areas of the
city and are physically isolated from others. In this fashion, the city
develops a district financial district, a retail-trade center and a residential
sector each separated from the other.
Cities we never static. Any
differentiated areas open to ecological invasion by new activities or
populations. For example industries may overtop a residential neighbowhood a
ware house district may be concentrated into luxwy condominiums or a
traditionally black neighbowhood may be resettled by puerta Ricons. Once this
process of ecological invasion is more or less complete, succession has
occurred that is activity or group of people have replaced another.
Robert Redfield (1974:453) in comparing
a rural peasant village and a large city in yucatan mayas, argued that culture
change could be studied a long a rural-urban continuum. He further viewed the
cities as centers through which cultural motivations are introduced into tribal
areas, cultural disorganization he said emerge as a folk community moved to
urban. By cultural disorganization we mean that there is a loss of original
culture and increase on the acquisition of new culture.
Stanley A. freed (1977:411) in
discussing a paper titled. “Attitude,
behavious and urban influence” in shanty; a North india village Nagar the
capital city of Delhi, pointed out from his survey that kinship ties have not
become attenuated but there are some slight tendencies in this dissection. To
some extent, obtaining work in the city, is no longer as dependent on kinship
as before. Urban oriented men are more likely than other villages, to mix and
form friendships with members of other
(castes groups) and that the extended family persists in shanty Nagar as a few
functions of the family have been taken over by the city. The first of these is
the formal education of children, primarily aimed at their urban employment as
a goal, is super seeding the self-supportive agricultural family.
May Ebihara (1971:369) in her article published,
she carried out her findings in a study between west sobay (a small village new the city) and the capital,
phenompenh, pointed out that the village had influences in the various spheres
of activity as a result of urban contact. The capital town (phenompenh), acts
as the main job of both national and international commerce of the village.
Villages are therefore, involved in national and even international trade, as both
procedures and consumers. Further more, villages who never particularly cared
for urban living, have started using property that are marks of
prestige-pressurelampls, wrist watches, sewing machines, motor caws and scatters.
Finally, that the idea of urban employment is not new to sabay villages.
I said (1956) sees cities as essentially
the points of expression of an economic system. Their efficient functioning is
resfoicted by the detail characteristics
of the economic system, which involves its productive capacity, its transport
system and technology and the general level of income of the popular. These
characteristics moveover determine the number, size and distribution of cities.
He also postulated that, cities represents accumulated fixed investments which
in conjunction with their vested social institutions, tend to entail major geographical
inabilities and rigidities and for the most parts, preclude relocation. As
societies become more indivtalized and urbanized, the internal structural
units, which characterized them apparently undergoing change toward greater diversification
and complexity, while at the same tending toward standardization and
simplicity.
Hanna and Hanna (1971) in their study of
urbanization in black Africa have identified relatively dense population, a large number of social roles and a relative
permanence of population and socio-economic infrastructure as being criteria of
towns.
Sorokin, zimmesman and Galpin (1920)
observed that there is a reverse movement. Regarding this country ward tend
these groups of authors stated that a small stream of migrants continue to go
from city to country. These representative of the city carry with them. The culture and
characteristics, the good and bad of the urban centers to the village too,”.
Similarly, economic, political and
social development of Ezzamgbo indigenes. The migration of Amaike people to
Ezzamgbo marked the beginning of development in this area. Infact, the arrival
of money to the people, has catalyzed a great deal of economic activity in
Ezzamgbo. This situation brought about different engagement in activities,
which were unknown to them before. It could therefore be said that, the flow
and movement of hundreds at the Amaike people to Ezzamgbo the headquarter of
the local government has affected modified and changed some of the
socio-economic development of the people.
While fisk (1975:1) and the overseas
development institute see rural development only in economic terms to other
factors.
Todwo (1977:282) holds a different view
to him development does not only mean agricultural development rather it
represents. “The transformation of economic and social structures, institution
relation and process in the rural area”. Ideally, development will involve
equitable distribution of rural incomes of now sowing rural-urban growth in terms of housing,
health, education nutrition and a number of social service. It also involves the ability
of the rural communities to sustain and transcend these improvements. So, what
rural development may involve is a mixed grill of agricultural, non-agricultural
development component.
Olatunbonsum and lele (1978:20) see
rural development as the reorientation of strategy toward the betterment of
rural life through a consciously sustained and coordinated programme of
activities. This can be done through the mobilization and allocation of
resources for the welfare and productive services in the rural area.
Beth Hess (1965:526) also identified some
major steps in the process of modernization, which includes urbanization or the
concentration in cities of large numbers of people with different occupations
and backgrounds. To him urbanization has
three major characteristics viz the size of the population in a geographic area
and varieties of statuses;
Generally, the more people with
different ascribed and achieved status are formed with in a defined geographic
space, the more likely we are to describe the area as urban. The size of one’s
home, the neighbor hood in which one lives, the cat one drives and the clothing one arears are more important in
determining a person’s status and identity than in more rural loca lities.
Rossides (1969) has also shown here
modern economic tends to be separated from the home both physically and
psychologically. Individual’s participation in the economy is determined by and
depends on his qualification. An industrial economy emphases and recognizes
individual achievement. An individual credentials especially those acquired
through education and work experience in order to get a job, work is not
assigned to persons based on family status as it obtained in rural or feudal
economy.
Pred, A.B. (1976:151-171) asserted that
migration of some family members to cities and industrial centers coupled with
their acquisition of skill and money has implied the attainment of new economic status (socio-economic status)
the migrants (workers) thus become economically independent from his immediate
and extended family. He is therefore constrained to act rationally in order to
enhance good standard of living in the household.
While urbanization has resulted in
several cases to the dislocation and disintegration of the family structures,
it has well nominally extended the social boundaries of kinship unit and it
definition; for instance, a man in the city could relate so well with his
neighbor as if he was his brother about large-scale disorganization in the
outlook of the family.
According to Hurd (1973( capitalism is associated
with urban economy and this characterized commercial relations, broom (1968)
associated capitalism with the extensive use of machine in view of the need for
increase productivity and the desire to maximize profits.
2.2 REVIEW OF
RELEAVANT THEORIES
a.
Socio-historical
theory
b.
Ecological
theory
c.
Push-pull
theory
d.
Situational
theory
The
theories that will be picked for this study are taken from the area of social change.
According to maogovet peil
(1977:336) she assert that “All societies experience ascertain amount of change
in the social structure and culture ovestime. Societies cannot remain stable
because they are in contact with other societies, which do things differently,
ideas, norms and social institution spread from one society to another through
culture beaver”.
We would also look at some theories
of urbanization and development in this study the break down of traditional economy
(farming) the change in the land tenure system where communal laws no longer
exist and the introduction of the new way of life like individualism are glaring
examples of change among the people under study.
SOCIAL
–HISTORICAL THEORY
According to our study of social
change the proponents of this theory are Ibn khaldun, Arnold Toynbee and Oswal
Spengler. We are going to look at their views in the study of urbanization on
social changes in our society. These scholars assert that changes in society
are at stages (physical movement) that is human life is thought of as enmeshed
in vest historical cycles, rather in a particular linear direction. They see
the process of changes coming as birth stage, stangnated stage and
disintegration stage in social life.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), a 16th
century Tunisian philosopher and one of the pioneers of sociological thought.
He explained this theory of change from the perspectives of two forms of social
organization.
a.
The
nomadic, which is characterized by aggressions, self-determination, solidarity
and co-operation.
b.
The
sedentary, which is also be found in “the muggaddimah”. Where he explores the
manifold factors included in social change.
The processes of
change are described in fow stages namely.
a.
Overthrow:
this has to do with previously existing system (culture) and establishment of a
new one.
b.
Consolidation
which has to do with security control.
c.
Leisure
and tranquility. It has to do with stability and expansion in size.
d.
Peace
and preservation of what has been obtained (established) traditionalism
e.
Degeneration
has to do with waste, recklessness and alienation of the formal stage.
His
theory of change is incisive with the following insights. He asserts that the
historical method offers the best approach to understanding change. And the factors
included in change are many and diverse, no single factor can ade quately
account for change.
He
continued that differencing forms of social organization created differing personality types.
Arnold Toynbee (1889) he sees a
process of birth, growth, stagnation and disintegration in social life. Toynbee
was interested in the study of society and civilization and sees society in the process of civilization in “dynamic
motion along a course of change and growth”. To him societies (or civilization)
arise out of responses to challenges that is in response to adverse conditions.
A civilization emerges in the theories of struggle, and comes into being only by surmounting berries.
He assets that, the process of the growth
of civilization refers to as “etherialization’s” meaning a shift of emphasis from some lower spheres of being to a higher.
This implies the conquest of initial obstacles so that energy is released for
responding to challenges, which are now internal rather than external and
spiritual rather than material in native. Such growth means increasing
self-determination and it involves differentiation between the parts of the
society.
Oswald splengler. He also studied
the socio-cultural changes in terms of a
cyclic variation. He assert that. “The life cyclic of cultures”. Culture civilization
pass through stages of birth, adolescent, nativity and delay and then birth or
rebirth etc.
RELEVANCE TO
STUDY
Socio-historical theory tend to
study society from her primitive stage to when such society has attained
urbanization processes which arises from the process of innovation found in the
society. The theory also exposes where a particular stage is un-functional for
another stage of change to take place.
ECOLOGICAL
THEORY
The exponents of this theory are
concerned with human ecology as regard man’s relationship to his environment so
the human ecologist looked at the geographic conditions in the rise of cities.
Scholars like Robert part, Ernest Burgess were interested in studying the rise
of cities. The ecological theory is most represented by the Chicago school of human
Ecology.
According to these scholars, the
rise of any settlement is on concentric nucleys. Robert part a notable figwe of this school came up
with a publication in about 1916. “Suggestions for the study of human
behaviours in urban area” the following
issues were raised by him, planning local organization, industrial organization
and the moral order, secondary relations and social control. Temperament and
the urban life and social stratification distinction.
RELEVANCE TO THE
STUDY
Based on the argument from
scholars, we have been able to conclude that, cities expand out ward from a
single business district in the center, as was commonly true of industrial
cities as a particular settlement begins
to acquire commercial activities, such settlement begins to be urbanized.
We have also observed that, each
model or stage has an important role to play for the development of a place.
This models that propel changes in
the society bring about specialization among individuals of that place by
getting involved into different businesses.
PUSH-PULL THEORY
According to this theory we have “Bright
light hypothesis which state that, they are certain basic infrastructure that
attract individual from a particular residence to another.
We have the “pull” factors, which
are these factors that could discharge individuals to with draw from an
environment like violence, fear, unemployment, epidemic crisis whether
religious or political.
While push factors are those that propel
movement like education, industries, companies, infrastructure like good rads,
electricity, good water and other social amenities that attract individual to
change residence.
This movement could bring about more
concentration of individuals in a particular area. This will tend to bring
about urbanization process in that area.
RELEVANCE TO
STUDY
The
bright light hypothesis expires the behavior of individuals in rural areas to
urban amenities. This theory helps in observing the conditions for urban
crowding and others urban problems.
This theory exposes the attraction
of better political, economic and social opportunities and increased amenities influence the direction of
movement. We have also discovered factors, which encourages and that which
inhabit movement. The decision to move or not to move results from the
evaluation of all these factors.
SITUATIONAL
THEORY
The proponent of this theory is
wolpert (1965). He asserts that, majority of the studies of rural urban
mobility are characterized by the situational theory. It has two theoretical thrusts
the first rests upon the models of rural-urban differences and focuses upon the
problem of migrant adaptation as they move from one mile to another. The second
concentrates upon the decision of the migrant involved in movement. The first
these is said not to adequately describe the movement of people from rural to
urban area such movement brings to the city, people whose values, attitudes and
institutions have been developed in the country side. These personal attitudes
do not simply disappear in the urban environment, especially when the rural
migrant moves within a network of close personal ties, which aids his
assimilation into the urban environment.
RELEVANCE TO
STUDY
The development of cities according to
the theory depends on the situations of the individuals.
We have observed that individuals have
both negative and positive impulses in every destination they find themselves
into these impulses in individuals tend to propel or withdraw development in
society.
The involvement into investment by
individual is as a result of positive impulses to bring about change in the
social and economic sectors of the society.
2.3 THEORETICA
FRAMEWORK
PUSH-PULL THEORY: According to this
theory we have “Bringht light hypothesis” which state that, they we certain
basic infrastructure that attract individuals from a particular residence to
another.
We have the “pull” factors, which
are these factors that could discharge individuals to withdraw from an
environment like violence, fear, unemployment, epidemic crisis whether religion
or political.
While push factors we those
propel movement like education,
industries, companies, infrastructure like good roads, electricity, good water
and other social amenities that attract individual
to change residence.
This movement could bring about more
concentration of individuals in a particular area. This will tend to bring
about urbanization process in that area.
2.4 STATEMENT OF
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1.
There
is no significant relationship between infrastructural development in urban
center and high rural-urban migration in Ezzamgbo.
2.
There
is a direct relationship between rural-urban migration and decreasing
agricultural production in Ezzamgbo.
3.
There
is a direct relationship between urbanization and increasing role of market in
Ezzamgbo.
The
above hypotheses will be used to study the impact of urbanization on the
socio-economic development of Ezzamgbo. These hypotheses are intended to provide the necessary research
guidance and value with a view to achieving the stated research objectives.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 RESEARCH
DESIGN
Nachmias and Nachmias (1996) of proofed research design
as a logical model of proof that allows the researcher to draw inferences
concerning causal relations among variables under investigation.
However, the study adopts the survey
research design which is seen as a mode of inquiry that combines a distinct
method of data collection with distinct from analysis. The survey design is
seen as the best method available to the social scientist who is interested in
collecting original data and designing a population too large to observe
directly. More son the essence of choosing this type of design is because it is
particularly well as suited for the study of individual’s attitudes feeling and
opinions.
3.2 SCOPE OF THE
STUDY
This research focuses on the people
Ezzamgbo in ohaukwu local government area of Ebonyi state. The neighbouring
villages are as follows:
Amaike
villages in the Northern part with population of 3.659; Ntwuakpa in the south
with a population of about 35.875. umuagwa in the Eastern part with a
population of about 4.815 and umuoru in the western part with a population of
about 23.761.
This population census was based on
1963 Nigerian population census volume 2. The Ezzamgbo people shave a common
language a common mythical kinship, smilar customs, folk ways, norms mores,
religious beliefs and practices.
3.3 STUDY AREA
The area today called Ezzamgbo (Ohavkwu)
is large compact settlement, which lies between 11. 2 kilometres East of the
Abakaliki Ezzamgbo is 140.8 kilometres North west of Enugu and is located
between latitude 5.5 and longitude 801a East (forde 1964:44).
The land enjoys drainage from the Abakaliki
which criss-crosses the area in the form of streams. As at 1935, ford report
that Ezzamgbo occupied a territory of 54.52 square kilometers. There were at
least 4.64 on 5.8 square kilometers of continuous forest on the eastern borders
and 1.16 square kilomaters of swampland in the north west.
The remaining 46.40 square kilometers of
land was penetrated by a web of farming parths, which gives access to
periodically cultivated tracts of land on either side as well as affording
routes to neighboring village.
However, increase in population has
reduced the amount of land that was previously uncultivated. The population in
1935 estimated to be 10, 900 by 1953, the figure is supposed to have risen to
17,567 in 1953, the figwe supposedly rose to 44, 945. Whereas the ohaukwu are
thought by themselves and many observes to be increasing rapidly Dr. O.A. Ubi
has cautioned on the danger of extrapolating based on these figures for certain
years, may be under-estimated, and those for others over estimated.
Population pressure on residential land
predisposes the Ezzamgbo people to build hamlets on the nearest tract of the farmland belong to the group. The
extension is one of the residential testimonies and does not signify gradual separation from the
parent linage. The (“umuoru”) as it is called, recognizes the strength of the
“umuagawa”. The “Umuagwa “ is low mound of small bouders swmounted by some
chalk-stained pots usually set in the shared of tree.
The “umuagwa” symbolizes the corporate
identity of the patrician called the “imunwa nukwu” which means the people that
born planty children. This traces linage from the man.
HSITORICAL
BACKGROUNDS
The Ezzamgbo traditions of origins
are intricately connected with those of the izzi people as a whole (that is
including Ntwuakpa, umuagwa, umuebe, Amaike, Amovu, umoru, Amachi). The common
tradition is that the Ezzamgbo fore bears had initially settled in the East, in
a place called “Isheke”. They has as neighbours the people of isheke junction,
a settlement some 58 kilomiters away from Ezzamagbo territory, up the
Abakaliki.
There
are variations in the accounts of the place of original settlement. Chessman
(1939) implies that the isheke had not migrated, which is to say, only the
Nturuakpa and umuagwa had migrated from presumably somewhere close to isheke
settment.
Rosemary
Hovries (1965) suggests that the Ntwuakpa lived first in the hilly country to
the Nouth of the Ebonyi State, or Abakliki, possibly in the region of the
oshegbe hills and the umuoghwa hills, together with the people of Ntwuakpa and
umuagara. Other neighours included the
Isheke, ukwuachi, and Ezza Oshebe villages of present day isheke development
center. Other were the umuoghwu “whose present location is known.
A contrasting academic view places
the original settlement at Abakaliki urban CAS, called permanent site by the Ntwuakpa.
Dr. Sam Egwu formal his excellency notes the bettermate involved as this name
at the same time refers to the highland in the neighbour hood the isheke.
This bring development to Ntwuakpa
and isheke which resulted that many people come to isheke and Ntwuakpa and
live.
THE PRE-ECONOMY
OF (EZZAMGBO) FARMAREAS
The farm lands in umuebe like it is
called by the people of Ntwuakap are held by advent men individually and a man
of middle age would have established rights to half a dozen sets of plots only
one fifth of the aggregate area is
however cultivated in any one year while the rest remain in bush to fallow.
One of the curliest task in
“Ezzamgbo” was that of finding a method of estimating with reasonable
accountancy the size of these farm plots. But the native of the cultivation and
the laying out of the farms in “Ezzamgbo” permitted safe generation as to the mean once and variation of farm areas.
The process of clearing hoeing and
planting farmlands proceeds piecemeal on each plot as the collective labour of
a group of kinsmen becomes available to each individual in two. Apart of a
dozen or so men clear a small stretch of bush day by day for each of their
number in two.
According to forde (1964:p. 27)
probably every household in Ezzamgbo produce some swflus, which is disposed of
by sales. But the variation in the amounts areas great as the means of
disposing of them various and some analysis is necessary before an attempt can
be made to asses the importance of exchange production within the households or
to estimate the amount of cash in come that are secured.
FOODSTUFFS:
In the village market women made in
a petty trade in foodstuffs, but it is very difficult to estimate this amounts
of produce involved nor is there any hard and fast line between cash sales and barter.
About half the women of the village dispose of small surpluses in this way as
they become available. The traffic in yams, the stable foods, appears to be
small in relation to the total harvest. Investigation of a sample group of
household in 1935 revealed not merely a high degree of self-subsistence in
yams, but also that surpluses we normally small and largely disposed of by
gifts and sales among kinsfolk. Only 15 percent of men produced a surplus
sufficiently large to be offered for sale to an outside trader for export from
the village, while less than half the men and a quarter of the women sold any
yams in quantity. Excluding yams disposed of in petty barter, the aggregate surplus probably amounted to less than 3 percent of
the main harvest and of this less than half left the village, on the other land
on account of their value, a man with a considerable yam surplus, such as sea,
could at a typical village price of 7:5 per sales of palm-kernels.
TRADE GOODS
The trade in European goods varies
even more in scale. On the one hand, there are a few well-established specialist
traders who do not farm, have several assistants and cover a wide circuit of
village markets.
At the other extreme are a
considerable number of young men who with a loan of a few shillings travel to
Abakaliki or Enugu to buy a few lengths of cloths which they attempt to sell at
a profit on their, return.
Most traders have their favourite
‘lines’ but there is a good deal of overlapping. The majority sells cloth and
combines this with other goods as opportunity offers. The outstanding trade goods
brought to the village are clothes and others clothing in considerable variety,
salt, stockfish, yellow soap, hardware, especially animal boulds and machetes,
matches, lumps of sugar, consumed by the women and children as a sweet med, gunpowder
patent medicines and miscall aneous personal articles such as beads, combs,
mirrors and pomades.
With the development of carrying
road services in the country west of the Ebonyi state; Enugu and Abakaliki have
largely markets from which cloth traders get their supplies but kernel and oil
traders taking supplies to Abakaliki frequently buy trade goods there fore
resale at Ezzamgbo, to all cases these are mostly brought at their ordering
retail prices in the European or Syrian stores.
In summary, according to forde
(1964:47). The level of output and
consumption in Ezzamgbo (ohukwu) have been presented above, for a small
household unit of one man, one wife and two young children. It should, however
be emphasized that the more energetic and prosperous men have in the recent
past had two or three wives.
At the same time a considerable
number of the petty traders are young men who have not yet taken up farm of
their own and contribute to their parents household outputs both from their
trading receipts and by help in farm work at busy times. There are therefore a
considerable number of households containing from three to six adults and these
are generally the most active in the community.
From the sales of palm products and
considerable surplues of yams, they appear to secure a cash income hundred
drive there from a comparatively large item of cash income.
FOREST PRODUCE
Most constructional materials such
as raffia poles and thatching leaves are produced by the men of each household,
but there is a considerable demand for dried liames and other fibres for use as roping in
house-building and yam typing. This is in parchment by supplies provided by the
younger men who will collect for sale up to a dozen or so bundles at about 6
each in the course of the year.
Palm-wine is reduced for local
consumption edible. Palm-oil is made from fresh fruit for local use and most
important of all, palm-oil and
palm-kernels are produced for expert. Nearly
all the more active men tap palm-trees for wine and a very large proportion of
them sell part of their supplies to others in the village. A fairly active palm-wine
producer can probably make los or so in the course of the year by sale of his
surplus win at the local price which varies from 1/2d to 11/2d calabash as about half a gallon, while those concentrating on
palm-wine-collection, who we, however few can even more than in this way.
TOTAL HOUSHOLD
SALES
According to forde (1964 p:30). An inquiry into retions from
production for exchange among the 81 men of one king group showed that three in
four produced and sold a surplus of any
of the leading exchange products, but non of them produced surplus of all. The
quantities and values after each category of produce exported from the village
was appropriately 60 percent of the total value of sales. Since the number of
men deriving considerably cash income from other activities remunerated outside
the village, i.e a fuel itinerant traders, road laboures, etc is very small, the
bulk of the cash-payments for locally
purchased native produce must be ultimately derived from the sales of produced leaving the village. In
other words, sales a of produced outside the village are the only substantial
source of new funds.
If
the group studied be taken to be a representative sample of the village as a whole,
the average cash income per house hold from sales of men’s products, omitting
petty traffic and occasional and exception items such as stock would be
appreciated 75.5.
While the sum reviewed from external
sales average only about 9.5 per household. These estimates omit one important
source of household income from produce,
namely that received by wives from more their proportionately greates than the
norm for a small household as estimated above.
On the other hand, there are ‘poor
relations’ generally members of small households who through disability or
misfortune, have out puts well below the general level. In many such cases both
the men and women offer their labour at times of planting and harvesting in ration
for payments in yams which enable them to make up the differences in their own
farms outputs.
The economic condition of Ezzamgbo
(ohaukwu) of the household ranges from that of a prominent man who may be head
of his word, and a leader in one or more clubs, with several wives and males
dependants and whose income from various sources, including consideration money
in connection with court cases, may exceed $10 a year, with saving at between
$20 to $40, to feed very poorly, and can barely afford to buy a single cloth
and a few utensils in the course of a whole year.
SOCIO-POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION
According to forde (1964:p:53),
the socio-political composition of the people of Ezzamgbo (ohaukwu) is made up
double-lineages. The family (“Ogbaekirijwe), the patrician (Nwaforodono”) or
matridan (“Amadi”) the village (“Okenwakpu”) and (chibueze Agbo”) and
(Okenwaugama”).
The village is the highest functioning
political units is divided into woods which are divided into lineages, which in
turn are divided into families-the minimal political unit within the family,
“political loyalty was spoke n of in the idion if kinship and the political
composition of the family was explained by
reference to descent-matrilineal or pats rilianeal (Dr. O.A. Ubi,
1998:158), outside the patrician status is established at word level, not
village as a whole.
The patrician was headed by a leader
referred to as “Okenwa Ugama”. He was usually the oldest man traditional, and
by implication the head of his extended family (“Ogbaekirigwe”). He was the
custodian of the (“Nturuakpa” and “umuagwa” and performed rites to ensure peace
among members of his family in dispute. It was his function to allot from land
and to member of the Ntwuakpa and to generally represent the Ntwuakpa in
meetings with other “Umu ebe”.
The several words (Ntwuakpa”), which
made up the village were themselves composed of adjacent dwelling areas
(“Aamaike”) of up to a alozen or more patrician “Amaike”). Patrician in a word
“may have traditions of ultimate common descent, but this is exceptional and in
no sense a sanction for membership of the same word. (Forde,, 1964:135).
The words had their leaders in the “umuagwa”.
The “umuagwa” were” a self-requited and self-prepetuating body of notable
including holders of prominent rituals offices.” The “umuagwa”, were expected
to ensure peace and stability within their respective words. Those cases of
inter-wards disputes usually including individuals of different’ umuoru’ and
therefore defying # settlement by the
“Amovu” were referred to the “umuagwa”. The “Amovu” was the head of the
“umuagwa” and it was the “Amovu” who guaranteed peaceful political co-existence
between his and other wards (Forde, 1964:143).
At the maximal level, the village,
the council of “ofeobodo” priests (the “Obolobo”) featuked most prominently.
The “ofeobodo” were the priests of fertility spirits with cults linked to the
spirit. The priests were referred to as “obolobo” (Itutara dance). The council
was composed of 10 priests of fertility spirit. Each fertility spirit )”Itutara
dance”) was associated with one or more of the 23 dispersed materidans
recognized in the village, people appointed to ceremonial offices became
“obolobo” (for instance the “over ofeobodo” Head of the village magicians).
The “Itutara dance” of the Ezzamgbo”
(fertility spirit) became automatically the head of the “ofeobodo” and as such,
the “Okenwa Ugama” (Head of the village).
The fertility spirit of which he was
the “Itutara dance) was not seen as being monopolized by one or so matridan-as
is the case of other “Gisls” but was seen as belonging to the entire village as a whole.
The prestige of the “Ezzamgbo” derived from the important rituals they
collectively performed the “Ezzamgbo” announced times for commencement of
seasonal activities. They imposed customary times for recalcitrance. Disputes,
which proved reconcilable at the clan or ward level were referred to the
“ofeobody”. The “ofeobodo” functions as a civil and criminal court. The
authority of the “ofeobodo” was moral and derived in major poot from the
supernatural sanctions if could invoke. A very severe punishment, which could be noted
out by the “ofeobodo”, was to refuse the different entry to the “obolobo” of
his own “Itumara dance play ground”). The “ofeobodo” and the possible extension
of this sanction to other members of his Itutara dance play ground”. The
“ofeobodo” could also prevent an offender from leaving or entering the dwelling
until recompense was made.
In conclusion, the political
administration of Ezzamgbo was initially premised on moral authority of the
“Ntwuakpa” at the ward level. The ward was Ezzamgbo the leadership of the “Ogba
ekirigwe” who was expected to intervene to compose any serious disputes between
members of different patricians to maintain
friendly relations with other wards and to represent their own matters of
trespass on lands or other property involving wards (forde: 1964:143).
The “Ntwakpa” were priest of several
mortician fertility spirit (“Itutara dance”). The primary “Itutara dance” was
the “priest” and its (“Itwara dance”) (priest) was automatically the “ofeobodo”
head of all the villages now called clan head.
The introduction of Native authority
like courts, first at Nturuakpa in umuagara, then at Ezzamgbo further areakened
the strength of traditional institutions, for instance warrant chiefs who were
chosen on ward basis replaced the “ofeobodo” in importance from the British point
of view and with time, the Ezzamgbo point of view as well.