ABSTRACT
The
environment is our global home, there is need for it to be preserved and
protected. It is within this environment that both natural and non-natural things
are found.[1] There
are so many variables through which pollutants can reach human beings, not only
the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat but also the sound we
hear. Noise pollution constitutes an element of the general environmental pollution
problem in Nigeria mostly in the city. This City nuisance makes the environment
unhabitable. Once an environment is no more habitable, it becomes polluted an
unhealthy for human being. The bane of this paper it to. This paper opts to
critically examine the effect of noise pollution on human Health and
environment. It implored a doctrinal method of research which gave a conceptual
definition of noise, exhaustively discussed the sources of noise pollution and
its effect on environment and Health. The paper concluded and made some
recommendations which if implemented, would help to control and noise pollution
on the environment.
INTRODUCTION
Noise is defined in different ways depending on the
person, place and time. It is a matter of semantics. Generally Noise is a sound
especially a loud or unpleasant one. It is also a series or confusion of load
sounds, irregular fluctuations accompanying a transmitted signal. It is any
loud or disagreeable sound.[2] Chamber’s
Dictionary[3]
defines Noise as harsh disagreeable sound, and defines noise pollution as an
excessive or annoying degree of noise in a particular area.
Noise is a number of tonal
components disagreeable to man and more or less intolerable to him because of
the discomfort, fatigue, disturbances and in some case, pain it cause.[4]
Noise, according to the Wilson committee of
the United Kingdom is “some undesirables by the recipient”.[5]
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary[6]
defines noise as loud and unpleasant sound especially when undesired.
The problem then lies on how much
sound causes environmental noise pollution. Scientists[7]
are of the opinion that the concept of noise should not only lie on individual
perception, but should be highly perceived in terms of frequency and intensity
based on objectivity.[8]
This objective perspective according to the scientific school must have
standards of measurement and yardsticks of general assessment. Unfortunately
the law has failed in proffering any explanation along that line. Noise
pollution is a type of energy pollution in which distracting sounds which are
clearly audible may result in disturbing
any natural process or cause human harm. Consequently, noise is unwanted sound.
Special metres[9] have
therefore been designed to measure tolerable and intolerable sound (noise)
other than the subjective tests of individual hearers.
Noise pollution is one of the environmental hazards
affecting human as well as climate. It is a price we have to pay as city
dwellers. Even in rural areas, it is difficult to find an exclusive area where
the only sound heard are those produced by nature. All forms of noise,
especially community noise and workplace (or industrial) noise exist in the
country.[10] Human
beings, animals, plants and even inert objects like building and bridges have
been victim of the increasing noise pollution caused in the world. Noise has
become a very significant stress factor in the environment to the level that
the term “noise pollution” has been used signifying the hazard of sound which
consequences in the modern day development is immeasurable.[11]
Though not physically visible, noise has been a major catalyst to climate
change and practically sources of human health catastrophes globally.
Therefore, from the foregoing, it
may rightly be summed up that noise is an unwanted pollutant introduced
directly or indirectly into the environment usually at 80-85db level and at
which sound becomes so painful and of deleterious effect and harm to living
resources, hazard to human health and sea amenities.[12] A
major distinction between sound and Noise is that sound is regarded as noise
when it becomes a sources of inconveniences to another.[13]
Noise pollution is not peculiar to
developing countries alone, it is a common occurrence and of highest magnitude
in most of the advanced countries. For instance, China until the third Century
B.C of it’s existence had used noise for torturing instead of hanging men for
dangerous crime.[14]
Similarly in India, not until of late when most of the people do not consider
noise as pollutant and take it as part of life routine, noise was before
considered gravious just like any other serious crime.[15] To
the researcher, noise is an unwanted sound irrespective of its level which
irritates or annoys the recipient.
Sources of Noise Pollution
It has been observed that city
populations are growing faster than infrastructure can adapt in Nigeria.[16] No
wounder Suni Ehi writing on the same issue stated that:
Residents of our big cities are increasingly going
through the gradual process of partial deafness. Their sensitive eardrums are
daily being bombarded by a continuous barraged of environmental noise over flowing from ear-shattering,
drum-size speakers of mosques and churches, from hammering neighbours musical
system, from the shrill horns of motorists, from piercing sirens of escorts,
from strident eruptions of drug peddlers; from thunderous weekend open parties;
and worse now, from harsh explosions of numerous record and cassette selling
kiosks[17]
Urban
dwellers are subjected to varying kinds of noise disturbances mostly occasioned
by neighborhood noise vibrated by record cassette players[18]. Noise
disrupts the tranquility of the environment and can affect climate and health
negatively. Amongst the common sources of noise pollution that can affect health
negatively and contribute directly to climate are:
1.
Electricity Generating Plants: Electric energy occupies the top grade in energy
hierarchy as it finds innumerable uses in homes, industries, agriculture and in
some nations, transportation. Nigeria’s electricity power situation is very
poor because of erratic power supply. As a result, there is an upsurge in the
use of electricity generating plant with its attendant noise pollution on the
environment and Human Health. Most workplaces and homes use generating plants
24 hours in alternative to power supply.[19]
The noise from generated plants in Nigeria couples with it’s accompany smoke
emission (emission of carbon monoxide which is deadly) to the sky has greatly
contributed to the breaking of the Ozone layer in the sky[20] and
the deadly carbon monoxide has killed some people in different places.
2.
Vehicular Traffic Noise Engine and pressure Horn
Increase in vehicular traffic is also a source of
noise pollution around the globe especially in most urban cities around the
world. The passage of trains and airplanes makes the case even worse. Aviating
noise results from landing and take off of aircrafts at odd times. The
situation is also getting seriously alarming with increase in traffic density
on city roads.[21] The emissions of smoke from cars are of great
concern to the changes we are currently experiencing in the climate of this country.
The case of Adediran v Interland Transport Ltd[22]
is in support of this fact.
3.
Construction/Industrial Noise: The use of heary machines and other equipment in
construction industries generate noise in no small measure. The need to meet
with demand of the basic necessity of living,[23]
the construction of buildings, highways and city streets causes a lot of noise.
Pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loader, dump trucks and
pavement breakers are the major sources of noise pollution in construction
sites. This account for why noise is regarded as the most widespread industrial
hazard today.[24] All
emits one classes of Smoke or another which are all contributing to the current
change in climate.[25]
Motors and compressors used in the industries create a
lot of noise which adds to the detrimental state of noise in Nigeria. Plumbing,
generators, air conditioners, fans etc also create a lot of noise in the
building and add to the prevailing noise pollution[26].
There has been some pronouncement[27]
by the courts which supports these facts.
OTHER SOURCES
OF NOISE POLLUTION
Other sources of noise pollution that
are not contributing directly to climate change but contributes indirectly and
have some negative effect on human health are:-
4. Noise from Religious Worship Institutions:
- Nigeria is a multi religious society and is therefore prone to religious
activities. These activities manifest in congregational worship in various
forms. The congregational worship are held in mosques, churches and other
non-conventional areas like residential and workplaces in the daytime and even
throughout the nights.[28] Sometimes,
one is woken from sleep by religious prophetic utterances and invitation to
prayers and programmes.
Noise of significant levels is generated
from these congregational worships with the use of heavy public address systems
and intensity of the voice of the worshipers oozing from inside. However,
despite the thunderous nature of the noise and its adverse effect on human
health, the government has shield away from aiding the issue. For example, a
bill to control noise emission from religious places in kwara State was met
with strong opposition and eventually, the idea was dropped.
5.
Household Noise:
Household equipments, such as Vacuum cleaners, mixers and some kitchen
appliances are noisemaker of the house. Though they do not cause too much of
problem, their effect of noise emitted on human health cannot be neglected.
Furthermore, noise can be generated from neighborhood consisting of neighboring
apartments and noise within one’s own apartment.[29]
6.
Hawking Noise:
People while hawking do not realize the difficulties they caused to others and
themselves. There can be loss of hearing, stress level may go high and even
mental instability. Hawking unnecessarily while driving or stationed in a place
has become a trend these days and one while driving or stationed can hear it
very well at the traffic signals.[30]
In the case of Moore v Nnado,[31]
the court ruled in favour of the plaintiff where he complained of excessive
noise generated by the defendant in his palm wine bar by playing his stereogram
unreasonably loud until late every night. This was held to be an actionable
nuisance and the plaintiff was entitled to relief.
Effects of
Noise Pollution on Human Health
Concern
about the adverse effects pollution on health and environment have resulted in
measure to reduce and or abate it. However, the health impact of noise
pollution are not likely to decrease unless appropriate action is taken. The
purpose of Section 22 of NESREA Act is to minimize the adverse impact of noise
without placing unreasonable restrictions on development or adding unduly to
the costs and administrative burdens of business.[32]
Environmental degradation brings about significant pressure on the climate and
on human health.
The said
Section 22 of NESREA Act[33]
provides as follows:
1.
The Agency shall,
on the commencement of this Act, in consultation with the appropriate
authorities:
a.
Identify major
noise sources, noise criteria and noise control technology; and
b.
Make regulations on
noise, emission, control, abatment as may be necessary to preserve and maintain
public health and welfare.
2.
The agency shall
enforce compliance with existing regulations and recommend programmes to
control noise originating from industrial, commercial, domestic, sports,
recreational, transportation or other similar activities.
3.
A person who
violates the Regulation made pursuant to sub-section(1) of this section commits
an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine not exceeding N50,000 or
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to both such fine and
imprisonment and an additional fine of N5,000.00 for every day the offence
subsists.
4.
Where an offence
under sub-section (3) of this section is committed by a body corporate, it
shall on conviction be liable to a fine not exceeding N500,000.00 and an
additional fine of N10,000 for every day the offence subsists
Noise can have a significant effect on the environment
and on the quality of life enjoyed by individuals and communities. Therefore, Exposure
to noise pollution can affect human health in the following circumstances:
1.
Hearing loss in fetus and Newborn
The ear is the best detector of noise and therefore
the organ most likely to suffer harm from it. It is true that people vary in
their response to loud sound but repeated exposure to sounds above 80 to 90
decibels can lead to gradual loss of hearing. For instance, pregnant women
exposed to noise in the market place, road, vehicle, workplace (etc) may result
in noise-induced hearing loss and other health hazards on fetus.[34] The
baby’s hearing is damaged and the baby may have hormonal disturbances as well
as birth defects.[35] Expert
study found that children with high-frequency hearing loss tested at 4 to 10
years of age were more likely to have been born to women who were exposed
consistently to occupational noise in the range of 85dB during pregnancy.[36] This
goes to establish the fact that the excessive noise pollutant has adverse
effect on health of a child in the womb.[37]
The National Concord[38]
reported that persistent noise created by a street disc manufacturer in a
strictly residential area of Ikeja forced residents to leave their homes in
order to keep away from the deafening noise coming from the factory.
Noise can have so many adverse
effect which include not only damage to hearing as has been discussed but also
disruption of normal activity and as a sonic boom, can also cause physical
damage to structures.[39]
The most common and best understood psychological effect of noise is this
hearing impairment either temporary or permanently. The amount of permanent
hearing loss produced by sufficient exposure to high level noise depends on the
nature of the noise, the time distribution of a particular exposure, the local
duration of the exposure over a lifetime and the individual susceptibility. For
essentially continuous type of noise, such as that in many factories, enough research
has been done to permit some statistical prediction of the risk which results
from noise of such nature. Statistical estimate has shown that about 5% of the
working population of any developed country is made deaf by their Jobs.[40]
The study of the effect of Noise pollution on hearing of public transport in
Lahore city of Pakistan shown that public drivers are exposed to excess noise
on roads and about 75% of them are suffering from noise induced hearing loss.[41]
The major cause of hearing loss is occupational exposure, although other
sources of noise particularly recreational noise may produce significant
deficits
2. Disturbance
in mental Health: Noise pollution is
not believed to be a cause to mental illness, but it is assumed to accelerate
and intensify the development of latent disorders. Noise pollution may cause or
contribute to anxiety, stress, nervousness, nausea, headache, emotional
instability, argumentativeness and sexually impotence, changes in mood,
increase in social conflicts, neurosis, hysteria and psychosis.[42]
Population studies have suggested association between
noise and mental health indicators, such as rating of well-being, system
profiles, the use of psychoactive drugs, sleeping pills and mental hospital
admission rates. Children, the elderly and those with underlying depression may
be particularly unbearable to these effects because they may lack adequate
coping mechanisms. Children in noisy environments find the noise annoying and
report a diminished quality of life.[43] More
disturbing is the fact that prolonged exposure to noise can affect one’s
personality. When British Government researchers asked victims of noise
pollution how they felt about those responsible, they spoke of hatred, revenge
and even murder.[44]
However, in combination with provocation, pre-existing anger to hostility,
alcohol or other psychoactive agents, noise may trigger aggressive behaviour by
virtue of our views with examples of this kind of behaviour.[45]
3. Cardiovascular
Effects: Noise has been associated
with important cardiovascular health problems.[46]
Experts have shown that noise exposure causes a number of predictable
short-term physiological responses mediated through the autonomic nervous
system. Prolonged exposure to noise, it is believed, can significantly alter blood
cholesterol and plasma corte so low to the detriment of human health.[47]
Noise is also a causal factor of some heart diseases migraine and
gastro-intestinal ailment.[48]
Exposure to noise, causes physiological activation
including increase in heart rate and blood pressure and thus increases
peripheral vascular residence. There is rapid habituation to brief noise
exposure but habituation to prolonged noise is less certain.[49] These
effects begin to be seen with long-term daily exposure to noise levels above
65dB with acute exposure to noise levels above 80 to 85dB[50].
4. Sleep
Disturbance: uninterrupted sleep is
known to be a prerequisite for good physiological and mental functioning in
healthy individuals.[51]
There is both objective and subjective evidence for sleep disturbance by noise.
Exposure to noise disturbs sleep, proportional to the amount of noise
experienced in terms of an increased rate of changes in sleep stages and in
number of awakenings. Habituation occurs with an increased number of sound
exposures by night and across nights. Also more disturbing is the fact that
prolonged exposure to noise can affect one’s personality. Noise exposure during
sleep may increase blood pressure, heart rate and finger pulse amplitude as
well as uncontrollable body movements. They may also be after effects during
the day following disturbed sleep, perceived sleep quality, mood and
performance in terms of reaction time, all decreased following sleep disturbance
by road traffic noise.[52]
Other primary sleep disturbances are: - difficult in
falling asleep, frequent awakening, waking two early and alternation in sleep
stages and depth. Although the long term health consequences of noise are
inclusive, noise induced sleep loss has been found to impair task performance
the next day.[53]
Impaired task performance: There is good evidence, largely from laboratory studies
that noise exposure impairs performance.[54] Thus,
work tasks that require deep concentration will adversely by affected by noise
as it will change the workers emotion and behavious in a number of ways.
Noise exposure may also slow rehearsal in memory,
influence processes of selectivity in memory and choice of strategies for
carrying out tasks. There is also evidence that noise may reduce helping
behaviour, increase aggression and may reduce the processing in social cues
seen as irrelevant to task performance.[55]
Measure to
reduce/abate Noise Pollution
Due to the ignorance of
Nigerians on the fact that there exist a close nexus between noise pollution
and health, little or no attention is paid to the control of noise pollution in
the country. The execution and implementation of the law as regards
environmental pollution is never implemented to the letters. It has been
observed by writers that the persistence of this problem could endanger the
future stability of human health and could aggravate the human health
catastrophe in the fast growing cities in Nigeria.[56]
The most comprehensive and global
enactment on the protection of the working environment against noise pollution
was enacted in the convention held in Geneva[57]
under the auspices of the United Nations. The convention gave rise to a
document[58] simply
known as 1977 working environment convention.[59]
This convention requires the parties to adopt in all their economic activities,
national laws and regulations to protect against hazards in the working
environment from air pollution, noise and vibration. Pursuant to these,
different countries including Nigeria have developed secondary legislations to
guard against noise pollution but the problem with Nigeria as the researcher
had mentioned before now is that of execution and implementation of the laws to
the letters.
Be that as it may, dampening the
sources of noise level or making its noise characteristic less annoying are
typical first approach to noise control.[60] This
could only be achieved through zoning. An industrial layout, construction site,
market and vehicle/ loading and repair stations should be sited at a distance
from residential places . Also the use of quiter machines and appliances though
costlier than second handed ones that produces excessive noise and pollute the
environment should be encouraged. Technological Advancement measure and natural
protection should also be taken to abate noise through the use of gargets like
insulator and sound proofing to doors, walls, ceiling using ear protection and
planting of vegetation for arbsorbtion of sound.
Recommendations
Notwithstanding the fact that some agencies, Non
governmental organizations (NGO), statutes has made provisions safeguarding the
environment against the deleterious effect of noise, it is significant to
evolve a more proper approach to address
the issue considering the adverse effect it has on human health and
environment. This paper recommends amongst others, measures already inforce, the
enactment of a laws by the national Assembly to combat noise pollution
aggressively in Nigeria and that such bill should be stepped down at various
state and local government respectively. There should also be an adoption of plan
control measure which involves the separation of Land Use into noise sensitive
and noise insensitive.
Secondly, there is need for public enlightenment,
education and sensitization on the hazards associated with noise pollution and its
nexus with human health.
Thirdly, since the rate of pollution increases inline
with population increase, there is need for review of environmental polices,
plans and programmes for noise pollution in Nigeria. This will help to bring up
suitable plans, programmes and policies that can address current issues
relating to the effect of noise pollution on health and environment.
In addition to these, principles of
good neighbourliness the following should be adopted:-
a.
Consider your
neighbours when you do something nosily and inform them before hand.
b.
Co-operate when
asked by a neighbour to reduce noise.
c.
Not to carry out
noisy work or use domestic appliances that are noisy at night.
d.
Not to play music
at a level that annoys your neighbour.
Finally, some provisions of the noise control and abetment
Act, 1977 which is an Act of the United
State should be adapted to put in place a regulatory agency who would assist in
the measurement, control and enforcement of the laws to achieve a desired goal.
[1]A, Akinbode
Introductory Environmental Resources
Management, Daybis Limited, 2002,
pp1-2.
[2] See
Collins Australian Pocket English Dictionary at p. 573.
[3] 21st
Century, Chamber’s Dictionary, 2nd edition.
[4] A.D, Hamza
‘Noise pollution regulatory measures for protection of Ecosystem” faculty of law journal 2007-2008, vols 3
& 4 p.32.
[5] The Wilson’s committee was set up in England in 1963 to examine the
problem of Noise pollution.
[6] 2nd
edition.
[7] One of
such scientist is Glover who gave evidence in the case of Hasley v Esso petroleum (1961)2 AER 149
[8] See Halsey v Esso petroleum (Supra).
[9] Like the
dawmeter used by Glove in Halsey’s case (supra).
[10] Daily
Times May 11,1990 p.4.
[11] Mahammed
Javed Aslam, “Effect of Noise Pollution on Hearing of public Transport Drivers
in Labore City” (2008) Pakistan Journal of medical science, vol. 24 nos. 1 p.1.
[12] Sound
is measured by its frequency. The rate of sound is called frequency and is
measured in Hartz (HZ) and sound pressure
measured in decibel (dB). See A.J, Alawode Stephen J.T. and G.J, Adeyemi
“Health safety and environmental issues in Nigeria Manufacturing and Processing
Industries” (2008) Journal of Engineering
and Applied Science p.636 . A normal ear
in healthy young person can detect sounds with frequencies from 20H2 to 20,000
HZ, while dogs can hear high-pitched sounds up to 50, 000HZ. Noise measurement
are expressed by the term sound pressure level (SPL), which is logarithmic
ratio of the sound pressure to a reference pressure and is expressed as a
dimensionless unit of power, the (dB), the reference level is 0.0002 microbars,
the threshold of human hearing.
[13] J.A Mohammed
(Supra)
[14] B.S Kapoor
and K, Singh, ‘Noise the insidious Killer’, The
Tribune of 25 November 1995 p.5.
[15] G.K, Nagi,
M.K, Dhillon and G.S; Dhlwal ‘Noise Pollution’ Common Wealth Publicater’,
New Delhi 1999.
[16] Ezedum,
chucks E ‘Urbanization, Global warming and Health’, Nigeria Journal of Health Education (Njhe) vol. 16 no. 1 June 2012.
[17] Sonni
Ehi Asuelarian, ‘The Challenge of Noise
to Public Health’ (The Guardian, 5th
December, 1984) p.9.
[18]
Neighborhood noise affects the residences or occupants of a building in a
particular locality and such noise is usually generated from music, motor
parks, generating plants, intruder alarm, churches and mosques.
[19]T.O; Akinbulire
P.O, Oluseyi, C.O.A Awosope and O.I; Okoro
Data-Based Analysis of power system
crisis in Nigeria, takinbulive@unilag.edu.ng;
poluseyii@unilag.edu.ng;
cawosope@unilag.edu.ng
and oiokoro@hotmail.com
p1-2, COA Awosope; ‘Power Demanded but Not
Supplied; ‘The Agonizing Roles of Emergency Power of Lagos,’ Inaugural Lecture series; 2003,P.B. Oyebolu;
‘That We May Have Light’ Eleventh October Lecture, Nigerian Society of
Engineers, (1992).
[20] Nigeria
is facing a very serous erratic electricity supply. All governmental efforts to
meet the need of the populace in this premises proved abortive. The industries
and most people whom their sources of livelihood depend on electricity find
generating plant an inevitable to meet their needs.
[21] There
is astronomical increase in rural-urban migration in Nigeria. A significant of urban
population use motorized transportation. The noise generated from these is
enormous as to affect Human Health.
[22] (1991)
9 NWLR pt 214 p.155 Sc.
[23] The
need to build a modern city with up to date amenities has led to the
installation of series of machines that uses diesel which produce higher smoke
emission while working.
[24] ‘Noise
and you’ Awake November 8, 1997, p.7
[25] Rushmer v polsue (1906) 1 ch. 234,
Halsey’s case (supra)
[26] M.,
Deepak ‘Noise pollution, sources,
Effects and control’ (2009) 18th Nursing www. Legalserviceindia.
Com/article/noise. htm.
[27] Tebite v Nigeria marine and Trading co ltd (1971) IUILR 432, Halsey v Esso Petroleum co (supra) 145, Ige v Taylor Woodrow Nig. Ltd (1963) LLR 140
[28] A
Journey through most urban cities in Nigeria will reveal the springing
up of places of worship in virtually
every
corner of the cities.
[29] H. Niemann et al, “Noise-induced Annoyance and
Mobility Results from the Pan-European lares study”
(2009), Noise Health journal vol. 8 pp 63-79.
[30] Goods
are now advertised and sold in vehicle using loud speaker even in promoting
goods and services, Banks, GSM providers, Local herb sellers, transporters to
invite intending travelers are very prominent in Nigeria.
[31] (1967)FNLR
156, Khorasandjian v Bush (1999) 3 WLR 476CA
[32] See
Blackstone’s planning law practice 1999, Blackstone’s press limited p.1011. See
also the guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in
Nigeria.
[33]
National Environmental standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency
(Establishment) Act, 2007.
[34] Normal
growth, premature and intrauterine (inside womb) growth retardation.
[35] See
generally, Awake! November 8, 1997, p.7.
[36] L, Redolph,
CS Forest, ‘female Reproductive Toxiocology,’ in Lapou J. ed. Occupational Medicine (Norwalk CT:
Appleton & League, 1990) p. 279 and Paul M, (ed), ‘Occupational and
Environmental Reproductive Hazards, A guide for clinician’ (Williams and
Wilkins, 1993), p.6.
[37] L.B,
Arlene ‘The increase in noise pollution: what are the Health Effect and the
Harmful of Noise’ http://www.findarticles.com.
In 1982, the United State of America issued a warning that
pregnant mothers should not work in Noisy industrial plants.
[38] National
Concord of 11th
June, 1984
[39]
Theodore Okonkwo The Law of Environmental
Liability, Afrique Environmental Development
and education, 2nd edition 2010 p.391.
[40] See
FEPA mimeograph vol.1 cited in C.A. Omaka , ‘Municipal and International Environmental Law’ Lions Unique
concepts, Lagos Nigeria, 2012 p. 282.
[41] M.Y, Hussian
, A.Q, Ghaffar Qureshi & Imran, ‘Road Traffic Noise level at different
locations of Fuisalabad’ (Pakistan)(2002) International
Journal of Agriculture & Biology p.6 and J.A, Mohammed ,A.S Mohammed &
B. Amna, ‘Effect of Noise pollution on hearing of Public Transport Drivers in
Lahore city’ (2008) Pakistan Journals of
Medical Science vol. 24 N1
[42] Passchier-Vermeer
‘Noise: A health problem’, (2002) Environmental health Perspectives http://www.noisehealth.org.
[43] S. Cohen,
G .W. Evans martin, D. Stokols, D.S. Karntz, Behaviour,
Health and Environmental Stress, (New York Press, 1986) p.25.
[44] C.A, Omaka
municipal &international
environmental law (Supra) p282.
[45] N, Cohen
Sweinstein ‘Non-Auditory effect of noise in Behaviour and Health’ Journal of. Social issues, 1981 at 3, pp
36-70.
[46] World
Health Organization concluded that the available evidence showed suggested a
weak association
between
long-term exposure above 67-70dB and hypertension.
[47] NIPSS
at a workshop organized by Nigerian Environmental Society, Lagos 1988.
[48] See law
relating to noise by sharp and Jennings.
Chap .l and also Clarke and Lindsey on Torts 15th Edition.
[49] See M. Valet,
J. Cagnexix & J.M. Clairet, ‘Health Rate Reactivity to Aircraft Noise after
long term Exposure’
in G. Rossi, (ed) Noise a public Health
Problem (Centro Recherche Studio
Amphiton, (83) 963.
[50] Ibid
note 11.
[51] See A.H.
suffer, Noise and its effects, Administrative
conference of the United States (1991)
www.noise.library/suffer.
Babisch w.noise Babisch and Health Education: Health
perspective (2005)
http:www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic/erender.feg article 1253720.
[52] A.S. Stephen
& P.M. Mark ‘Noise Pollution: Non-auditory Effect on Health’ (2003) British Medical Bulletin
Vol. 68
p244.
[53] L.B. Arlene,
‘The Increase in. noise pollution: what are the Health Effects’ www.med-scape.com/vewarticle
[54] (Supra)
[55] D .M. Jone,
A.J. Chapman and T .C. Auburn, ‘Noise in the Environment social perspective’
(1981) Journals of Applied Science and Physiology pp 43-50
at 46.
[56] Most of
Nigerian cities are becoming highly populated due to urbanization, thus human
activities are more of
sources of
noise therein. (Abuja, Lagos, kano, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, Cross River, Ilorin,
Ibadan, Enugu etc).
[57] 20th
day of June 1977
[58] Geneva
20-26 June 1977 inforced 11 July, 1979 SMTE 482 (ILO Convention No (48) Art 1
(1) & 4(1).
[59] Convention
concerning the protection of workers against occupational Hazards in the
working Environment
due to Air, Noise
and vibration 1977.
[60]
Theodore Okonkwo The Law of environmental
liability, Afrique Environmental Development and Education (AEDE) 2010, 2nd
edition p391.