CHAPTER ONE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
[V1] The animal
protein consumption level has direct influence on the general well – being and
health status of any populace. The overwhelming animal protein deficiency common
in most rural families in the developing countries are yet to be alleviated.
Report from Ojating (1997), using Nigeria as a case study, advocated the
rearing of short cycle micro – livestock such as rabbit in order to maintain
sustainable animal protein sufficiency in development countries. Obike and Ibe
(2010) reported that domestic rabbits serve as cheap source of high quality
protein that can substantially improve the level of animal protein production
and consumption in these countries. Lebas et
al., (1997), stated that rabbits have high reproduction potentials and fast
growth rate due to their high feed utilization ability.
Rabbits
keeping has gained ground among Nigerian households and researchers as an
alternative source of animal protein [V2] and
experimental material and its potential in cushioning the effect of world food
shortage has been stressed (Chen et al.,1978).
The productive efficiency of rabbits is measured by the number of young raised
to weaning or slaughter per unit time. In rabbits, individual birth weight is
about 60-70 grams. But can also range form 35-40 and 80-90 grams (Poigner et al., 2000). Characteristics such as
litter size at birth and litter size at weaning. Kit weight at birth and kit
weight at weaning are some of the trait of economic importance that need to be
studied before any management system can
be profitable in the rabbit industry. Evaluation of productive performance of
animals constitutes essential parts of successful breeding plans for
sustainable genetic improvement. Therefore, consideration of pre-weaning
performance of domestic rabbit in the humid tropics is important for their
genetic improvement for better future performances particularly for the
commercial meat type rabbit.
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1.2 OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
This
study was conducted to:
1. evaluate the effect of breed type on litter
size, pre-weaning and weaning body weight of rabbits
2. determine the correlation between the litter
size and body weight at different ages.
3. estimate the weaning weight using litter
size, and birth weight of rabbits.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
OF THE STUDY
Rabbit
producers are interested on the relationship that exists between litter size,
birth weight and the pre weaning performance and some time post weaning
performance of rabbit, since this information would reflect in their future
performances. Breeders need to establish the relationship that exist between
these parameters in order to organize accurate breeding programme so as to
achieve an optimum combination of body weight for maximum economic returns. Rabbit
is highly prolific animal with short gestation period of about 30-32 days
(Louise, 1996) and cable of breeding or reproducing up to three or more litters
in a year. Rabbit meat is popularly
known as Lagomeat, is reach in protein and very low in cholesterol, hence
capable of reducing any adverse health condition to the consumers. It is easy
to establish and require little capital for starting hence can be established
with minimal cost requirement. The breed with the best record in terms of
disease resistance, better litter size and weight at birth and weaning should
be used for production. This inturn will give the best productive performance,
increase the farmers revenue, reduces unemployment and enhance the standard of
living of the farmer, reduce rural to urban drift and above all bring about
development to the rural farmers who embark on such venture. There is need for
people to encourage rabbit production as they do not fully compete with man in
the conventional feed ingredient such as grains rather they feed on kitchen
waste materials and some forages which are not consumed by man and other
animals as this in turn will help reduce the cost of productions.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ORIGIN AND DOMESTICATION OF RABBIT
Domestic
rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)[V3]
is a descendant of wild rabbits of Europe and North Africa. This animal
(rabbit) [V4] is
thought to have been discovered by Phoenicians when they reached the shores of
Spain about 1000BC (Lebas et al.,[V5] 1998).
During the time of Romans, rabbit was emblematic of Spain. It appears that the
Romans spread the rabbit throughout the Roman Empire as a game animal. In their
natural habitat, rabbits are gregarious and prolific. They are also completely
herbivorous (eat only plants) and mostly forage in the twilight or in the dark.
The average life span of a rabbit is 5-10 years (potential life span of 15
years is possible).
Rabbits
are ideal for small livestock projects in peri-urban or rural areas, especially
in developing countries such as Nigeria with a significant proportion of
citizenry living below poverty datum line (World Bank, 2003). Rabbits are quite
clean and relatively odourless. The raising of rabbit can be anything from a
profitable hobby to a full-time living rabbits fit well into a balanced farming
system. Rabbits production complement well with vegetable growing. Excess and
waste from vegetable gardens and kitchen goes to feeding of rabbits, whereas
their manure is used to fertilize gardens thus forming a profitable cycle and
aiding the balance of nature. The reasons for raising rabbits are manifold.
Rabbits are important source of food, particularly in Europe and Asia. Rabbits
produce white meat that is high in protein, low in fat, highly palatable, low
in cholesterol and can substitute poultry in most recipes. Rabbit carcasses are
only 20% bone. In the United State, rabbits are raised mainly for non-food
purposes. High quality rabbit skins are used in fur garments (clothing, hats),
to cover bicycles seats, etc. and their use could spark a village
industry/crafts projects. Another significant use of rabbits is in cosmetic,
medical and pharmaceutical research laboratories.
2.2 BREEDS OF RABBITS
Rabbits
are generally classified according to size, weight and type of pelt. Small
rabbits weigh about 1.4 to 1.8kg at maturity, Medium breeds weigh about 4.1 to
5.4kg and large breeds weight 6.4 to 7.3kg. The two most popular breeds for
meat production are the New Zealand white and the California. These breeds are
the most popular because they have white fur preferred by processors and good
growth characteristics. New Zealand
white is slightly larger than the Californian, 4.1 to 5.9 versus 3.6 to 4.5kg.
The New Zealand rabbits has a completely white, red or black body whereas the
Californian is white with coloured nose, ears and feet.
2.3 RABBIT PRODUCTION
In
1994, world’s production of rabbit meat was estimated to be 1.5million tons per
annum, this would mean per caput annual consumption of 280g per person per
year. The six major world’s rabbit producing countries are Italy, Russia, Ukraine,
France, China, and Spain (Akinmutimi and Onwukwe, 2002). In Africa, the leading
rabbit producing countries are Morocco and Nigeria and these are reported to
produce 20000 to 99000 tons of meat per year (Moreki, 2004). [V6] For
over three decades now, the contribution of smallholder rabbit units to food
security in developing countries has been clearly recognized (Lukefahr and
Cheeke, 1991). Rabbit production in Nigeria is largely traditional,
non-commercially oriented, family consumption targeted and small holder type
comprising 2-7 does and 3 bucks (Taiwo et
al., 1999). About 3.4-5.2% of the Nigeria population may be keeping rabbits
with women and children being mostly involved (Egbunike, 1997). Rabbit keeping is both intensive and semi
intensive, though some scattered free range backyard rabbit keeping has been
recorded (Isaac et al., 2010).Backyard rabbit rearing in Nigeria provides
additional income and supplies additional protein for poor rural and urban households
with low investment and labour inputs.
2.4 IMPORTANCE OF RABBIT PRODUCTION
According to Ruiz-Feria et al., (1998), rabbits can subsist on
inexpensive diets based on forages under small-scale farm conditions in arid
and tropical regions. Agricultural by-products, foliages and weeds such as controsema
pubescent, cassava root meal, rice bran, natural grasses and leucaena can be
used as dietary ingredients for rabbits (Lukefahr and Checke, 1991, Ruiz-feria et al., 1998).
The rabbit plays a role as an
alternative food source, particularly for people in developing countries. It is
claimed that there are far traditional/ social taboos concerning the eating of
rabbit meat (Mamattah, 1978).According to (Elemele et al, 1980). Dry rabbit manure contains 18.8% crude protein, 9.0%
moisture, 13.5% crude fibre and 19.2MJ gross energy per kg. In the same study,
100g of rabbit manure per kg of diet can be fed to broiler chicks and there
will be no decline in growt[V7] h rate as
compared to performances when placed on standard diet. Rabbit manure has also
been experimentally fed to rabbits (Swick et
al., 1978) and could be fed to ruminants as well. Rabbit and other animals
manures can be used to produce methane gas as a household sources of
alternative energy (SIC Waten and Stahl, 1982, Jacobs, 1986; Trujillo et al.,
1991). Scientist use the animals in experiments dealing with nutrition and
medical research; manufacturers use them for testing of products and in
addition, the animal is being used as pet.
2.5 NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS OF RABBITS
2.5.1 CRUDE
PROTEIN
Protein
is perhaps the most frequent nutrient lacking in the diets of rabbits primarily
because the common energy source such as maize and other cereal grains and
tuber crops are low in protein. Rabbits make its own particular proteins from
the proteins and amino acids they obtain from their food (Fielding, 1991,
Kellems and Church, 2006). This protein synthesis uses up energy.
The
ten essential amino acids which must be provided in the diet for rabbits to
survive and grow are, lysine, methionine, arginine, phenylalanine histidine, valine,
threonine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, (Fielding, 1991). Essential amino
acids need to be included in the ration for rabbits. Lysine and methionine are
usually the amino acids that are found to be deficient in rabbit ration
(Gillespie, 1998). While there is bacterial protein synthesis in the caecum, it
is not enough to meet the essential amino acid requirements of rabbits.
For
rabbits, the recommended crude protein level in the dry matter of the ration is
over 18% for newly weaned rabbits, 16-18% for rabbits from 12-24 weeks, 15-17%
for breeding does, and 12-14% for all other stock (Fielding, 1991). Several
researchers have investigated the protein requirement of growing rabbits. In an
experiment in which Martina and Damianan (1983) fed rabbits with decreasing
crude protein levels of 18.08, 16.32, 14.22 and 12.50%, they found that crude
protein could be reduced to 16.32% with lysine and methionine supplementation
without affecting weight gain and feed efficiency. Different results were
obtained when Carregal and Nikuma (1983) used diets with increasing crude
protein levels, 14.3%, 17.2% and 21.4%, as they found no significant difference
among groups of rabbits with regard to body weight, feed intake or feed conversion
efficiency. According to Pond et al.,
(1995) dietary protein quality is particularly important for rapidly growing
weaning rabbits, which may not have well developed caecal fermentation. Recent
research has demonstrated that the amino acid requirements are age dependent
and change during the reproduction cycle of the does. In early growth state
(4-7 weeks of age), rabbits need a higher amino acids is more pronounced
(Taboada et al., 1994)
Many
research reports have shown that a reduction of the level of protein and
essential amino acids in the diets, from an optimum level for growth in
animals, is associated with a decreased growth rate and efficiency of feed
utilization and concomitant increase in body fatness (Wahlstrom and Libal,
1974, Noblet and Henry, 1977, Russell et
al., 1983). Dietary protein level is one of the several non-genetic factors
that influence the amount of body fat in animals (Marks, 1990 and Wang et al., 1991) Forbes (1995) reported
that if the amino acid content in the feed of animals differed widely from
animal’s requirement for amino acids, feed intake would be depressed and that
if the deficient amino acid was supplemented, intake would be increased.
2.5.2 ENERGY
Although
energy is not a nutrient, but Rabbit requires 10% energy, hence this can be met
by the microbial protein and energy of the cecotrophs, it is a property of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins when they are oxidized during metabolism
(Stephen, 2009). The energy needed by rabbits for organic synthesis is usually
supplied by carbohydrates and a lesser extent by fats. When there is an excess
of protein, a process of diminution will take place and energy will be
supplied.
Rabbits
adjust their feed intake as a function of their dietary energy concentration
(Part ridge, 1989). According to partridge (1989), this regulation of intake to
achieve constant daily intake is only possible at a dietary digestible energy
concentration above 2250kcal/kg. Several factors influence the energy
requirements of rabbits (Kellems and Church, 2006). These include productive function
(growth, lactation, maintenance, etc), sex, age, body size and environment
(Temperature, humidity, air-movement). As temperatures decrease, the rabbit requires
more energy to maintain normal body temperature (Gillespie, 1998). And to
compensate for this increase energy, either the intake level of fed must be
increased or the energy content of the ration must be increased.
Average maintenance
requirement determined in growing rabbits is about 100kcal DE/Kg 0.75
[V8] (Maertens,
1992). Fed on energy-concentrated foods, rabbits can satisfy their
requirements, but this is not possible on forages alone because forages are
usually dilute source of energy (Fielding, 1991); hence when fed only on
forages they cannot obtain as much energy as those fed on concentrated foods
such as maize grains or cereal grains. Rabbits according to Cheeke, [V9] (1986)
require a diet of 2200kcal DE/Kg DM; 2.4-3.5MJDE/Kg DM; or 2.0-3.0MJ ME/KgDM.
Products of microbial degradation of dietary fibre which contributes to the
energy demand of the host animal, are the volatile fatty acids (VFAS). An
effective absorption of VFAS from the large intestine has been demonstrated in
all non-ruminant herbivores which have been investigated (Hintz et al., 1972).
In
rabbits, about 10-20% of maintenance energy expenditure comes from VFA (Hoover
and Heitman, 1972). Despite the apparently poorer utilization of fibre by
rabbits than by horses or ruminants, VFAS absorbs 30% of the maintenance energy
requirement (Parker, 1976). Pond et al., (1995) reported that digestible energy
levels in typical rabbits diets are quite low, being in the range of
2400-2800kcal/kg weight diet. They further indicated that higher energy levels
impair animal performance and result in reduced energy intake.
Rabbits
are efficient users of starch in cereal grains and preter barley to corn
(Gillespia, 1998) when given a choice of cereal grains. Diets that are based on
corn have produced poorer growth rates
as compared to barley or oat-based diets (Gillespia, 1998). About 3% fat is
recommended in rabbit diets, dietary fat is well utilized by rabbits and
improved diet palatability and increases energy level without causing
carbohydrate overload of the hindgut (Pond et al., 1995). The rabbit, for instance
the breeding doe, adjusts its feed intake according to the energy concentration
of the feed as well as the protein and other dietary components present (Lebas
et al., 1986); to around 220-240kcal of digestible energy (DE) per kg metabolic
weight.
2.5.3 CRUDE
FIBRE
According
to Martens (1988), although fibre is not considered a real nutrients in rabbits
because of its low digestibility (average dietary digestibility is less than
20%), it is considered a nutrient to maintain the gut motility. Cell-wall
constituents from feedstuff having low lignin content or young plants having a
considerable higher digestibility than highly liquefied sources, 40-70% versus
5-20% respectively. It is not clear what the minimum fiber in take for
prevention of diarrhea in rabbits should be. Research report from Blas et al., (1994) and Gidenne and Jehl, N.
(2000) examined the effect of low fibre diets to rabbits, and observed that a
sharp decrease in fibre level from 9-19% in the diet doubled the risk of
digestive trouble.
The
population of cellulolytic bacterial decreased in the caecum and the microbial
ecology system in the caecum become unbalanced which may cause death from
diarrhea. Feeding of rabbits with a diet low in fibre and high in energy or a
finely ground concentrate diet. Can result in high mortality due to intestinal
disorders such as enterotoxemia (Lukefahr and Checke, 1991). The significant
role of dietary lignin (ADL) on the rate of passage and its protective effect
against diarrhea has been demonstrated by the French INRA (Institute national
de la Recherche Agiono Mique) team.
The mortality rate as a result of digestive
disorders was closely related (r=0.99) to the ADL level in their experiments.
The relationship was expressed as follows: mortality rate (%) = 15.8-1.08
ADL(%) n>2,000 rabbits.
Quite
similar effects were observed by the same team of researchers with various
cellulose (ADF-ADL) levels. They clearly indicated that the recommendations in
terms of dietary safety cannot be expressed as a single fibre fraction.
Furthermore, recommendations of dietary fibre are age dependent. Young rabbits
require higher minimum levels that fattening or breeding does, probably because
of their lower daily intake to reduce enteritis. An excess of dietary fibre is
also not desirable because digestible energy (DE) content decreases and a too
high protein-to-energy ratio is commonly the result. Such a situation is
favourable for the proteolytic flora that produces ammonia with an increasing
risk of digestive disorders (De Blas, 1981; Lebas, 1989).
Besides
dietary fibre, starch also plays a key role in the nutrition-enteritis
interaction. Young rabbits have an immature pancreatic enzyme system that can
lead to significant amount of starch reaching the caecum when using high starch
diets, especially dietary starch with higher resistance (corn) against
hydrolysis could lead to starch overload. The risk of destabilization of the
caecal flora is higher if the increased ileal starch flow is not accompanied
with a similar increase of fibre intake (Gidenne et al., 1998). Rabbits use crude fibre less efficiently due to a
faster rate of passage of digesta and smaller holding capacity, compared to
grazing ruminants. Rabbits are therefore more selective in their diets than
ruminants (Jarvis C., 1976).
Optimal
fiber balance also includes a dietary recommendation for particle size. A sufficient amount of large-size particles
is required for optimal performance and to reduce the risk of digestive
disorders. According to De Blas et al,
(1999) a minimum proportion of 25% of large particles (>0.315mm) is
required. Chemical composition and form of fibre not only affected its
susceptibility to digestion but can also influence feeding habits.
2.5.4 MINERALS
AND VITAMINS
Pond
et al., (1995) stated that the major
mineral elements of concern in rabbit diet formulation are calcium and
phosphorus (Ca and P), and that the other minerals are usually provided in
adequate amounts by the ingredients used plus the addition of trace
mineral salt. Studies on the calcium and
phosphorus requirements of growing rabbits have shown that they need these
minerals much less than lactating does. The amounts excreted through the milk
are significant. However, excess of calcium (>40g/kg) or phosphorus {>19g/kg)
induce significant alternation of fertility and prolificacy or higher
proportions of still births. Total dietary phosphorus intake ranging from 0.45
to 0.76% did not affect any of the does’ reproduction performances (Lebas and
Jouglar, 1990).
The
lack of response to low-dietary phosphorus levels has been confirmed with
fatteners (Lebas et al., 1998). The
Ca:P ratio does not seem to be critical for rabbits (Lebas et al., 1998) and is usually
2:1, however, rabbits can tolerate much higher ratios copper sulphate which
is often used as a non-nutritive feed additive aids.
In
preventing enteritis (Pond et al.,1995).
Fielding (1991) stated that rabbit are born with high level of mineration in
their livers, sufficient for their pre-weaning growth. Rabbits require water-soluble
(B group and C) as well as fat-soluble vitamins (A,D, E and K). According to
Lukefahr and Cheeke (1991) the major vitamins needed in rabbit diets are
vitamins A,D and E and that protein and carbohydrate dietary sources, fed in
good variety, may largely meet the mineral and vitamin requirements.
Micro
organisms in the digestive flora synthesize sizeable amounts of water soluble
vitamins which are utilized by the rabbits through caecotrophy. Vitamin K and
the B vitamins are not required in the diet, since they are synthesized through
coprophagy and fermentation in the caecum or hindgut; likewise vitamin C
(Lukefahr and Cheke, 1991). Under practical conditions, the B-Complex vitamins
are not dietary essential for rabbits; however, under stress situations and at
high performance levels deficiencies can occur (Ismael, 1992).
Gillespie
(1998) has indicated that the use of iodized salt at the rate of 0.5% of the
diet will supply the needed sodium, chlorine and iodine for rabbits. The vitamin
A requirement of rabbits has not been adequately determined and a level of
10,000IU/Kg of diet is adequate while levels in excess of 40,000 IU/Kg diet may
adversely affect reproduction Pond et al., 1995). They further stated that
vitamin A-deficient rabbits exhibit poor growth, leg deformities, increased
susceptibility and a high incidence of enteritis. Vitamin C supplementation is
recommended for rabbits under stress (Verde and Piquer, 1986).
2.5.5 WATER
AS A NUTRIENT FOR RABBITS
Water
is normally considered a nutrient, although its properties and functions are
quite different from other nutrients found in feeds. Water is the major
component of the rabbit’s body, making up 70% of the lean body mass (Maertens,
1992). Maertens (1992) further indicated that rabbits will die more rapidly
from water deprivation than from food deprivation.
Restricted
drinking water or limited drinking time leads to reduced feed intake that is
directly proportional to the amount of water being consumed (Szendro et al., 1988). They further reported
that water and feed consumption varies with changes in environmental
temperature and humidity.
An
excessive temperature rise will reduce feed intake and increase water
consumption. According to Pond et al.,
(1995) water plays an essential role in a number of functions vital to an
animal such as digestion, nutrient transportation, waste excretion and
temperature regulation.
One
of the most important properties of water in nutrition is its remarkable
ability to dissolve substances. It is said that this property is due to its
dielectric constant, which in turn is due to its hydrogen bonding. (Lassister
and Hardy, 1982[V10] ).
2.5.6 PRE
– WEANING PERFORMANCE OF RABBIT
Studies in
pre – weaning growth performance is important since in breeding all stages of growth
are inter - related and cannot be viewed as isolated traits. Osinowo et al., (1993), noted that pre-weaning
performance traits such as weight gain till weaning, weaning rate and weaning
weight influenced herd productivity. McNitt and Moody (1988) and Lukefahr et al., (1990), identified pre – weaning
variables as major factors affecting post – weaning performance of rabbits.
This means that improvement of economic traits at pre – weaning stage, could
lead to better weaning and post – weaning performance of rabbits. McNitt and Lukefahr (1993) suggested that
heavy weaving weight is important as it could lead to attainment of market
weight at an early age. Therefore consideration of pre – weaning performance of
the domestic rabbits in the humid tropics is important for their genetic
improvement for better future performances particularly for the commercial meat
type rabbit. Information on pre – weaning differences in terms of growth trails
of rabbits rarer in the tropics mostly in Nigeria is scant in literature. Research
interest has majorly been on pre – weaning litter traits. This investigation
was, therefore, aimed at evaluating, the relationship between weaning, litter
size, pre – weaning and post – weaning body weight of the domestic rabbit such
a study will lend tips towards developing efficient breeding programmes for
breeding heavier and early maturing rabbits, more so in Nigeria where little
effort towards a planned breeding programme for genetic improvement of the
domestic rabbit has been made
According
to Obike and Ibe (2010) in the result of an experiment conducted, between
Chinchilla x Chinchilla and New Zealand white, Chinchilla showed superior
genotype in the pre – weaning growth performance compared to the New Zealand
white. This corroborates the result of Chineke et al (2000) who reported superior performance of Zealand white x
Zealand white over others, including Chinchilla x Chinchilla in body weight and
all linear body parameters studied.
Prayaga and Eady (2002) reported
significantly better individual weight performance of Zealand white and Flemish
Giant pure bred over Californian crossbreds. However, the observed superiority
of purebreds over crossbreds in the study is contrary to the observations of
Odubote and Somade (1992) and Chineke et
al., (2002) that pre-weaning growth characteristics of crossbred’s rabbits
were significantly higher than those of purebreds. These authors attributed the
higher performance of crossbreds to heterosis, indicative of preponderance of
non-additive genes for these growth traits. The observed superiority of
purebreds over crossbreds according to Obike and Ibe (2010) may be due to low
number of genotypes used in their study. On the other hand, it could suggest a
preponderance of additive genes for the pre-weaning growth traits since no
selection had been carried out in the population from which the experimental
animals were taken. With this observation made, the genetic relationship among
these populations in terms of these growth traits could be studied.
Lukefahr
(1987), observed that growth parameters are highly heritable traits, suggesting
that differences among different genotype are expected and selection based on
individual performance could successfully improve these traits. Factors causing
variation in growth rates of rabbits have been reported to include breed and
nutrition (Balogun and Ekukude, 1991). Dutch is a small breed (Fielding, 1991)
compared to Chinchilla and Zealand white. Thus, breed might have accounted for
differences in body weight and linear body traits observed among the purebred
genotypes, CHIN x CHIN, NZW X NZW and DUT x DUT.
The New Zealand white rabbit has been noted
for as a dam breed based on its outstanding maternal genetic merits for litter
size, milking and general maternal ability (Lebas et al 1997; McNitt et al,
2000). Okorie (1983) earlier reported that Chinchilla breed of rabbit is
characterized by fast growth rate and good mothering ability and is therefore
used extensively for breed. The implication of this is that Chinchilla and New Zealand
white breeds of rabbits have high milk yielding capacity for maintenance of
their kits and the genetic potential to transmit desirable genes for fast
growth rate. This is important in making fast genetic progress when considering
growth trails.
Obike
and Ibe (2010), concluded in their study, that the performance of Chinchilla is
better compared to the other genotype in terms of pre-weaning growth traits,
followed by New Zealand white. Therefore the two genotypes could be considered
as choice genotype for improvement of rabbits in this region.
2.5.7 LITTER
SIZE AND BODY WEIGHT OF RABBIT
Litter size
and body weight of rabbit is the most Important economic character in rabbit
production (Abou-Khadiga 2004 and Notal et
al., 2005). Diversity of rabbit breeds offer opportunity to increase the
efficiency of commercial meat production through crossing (Piles et al., 2004). Weaning mortality
percentage of kit rabbits is vital, importance in commercial rabbit farming,
where it plays a major role in
determining the net financial income of the farms (Rashwan and Marai, 2000).
With the increase of Litter size and decrease of mortality, income becomes more
elevated (Szendro et al., 1996).
Litter weight at weaning is controlled by the number of kits survived at weaning (Risam et al., 2005) California rabbits are
heavy and their litter growths make. It is a good meat rabbit and can be
exploited especially in crossbreeding (Lebas et al., 1986).
Ayyat et al., (1996), reported that addition
of probiotic lacto-sacc to the normal protein diet (18.4%) of New Zealand white
does rabbits, increased litter size and weight, pre-weaning litter survival
rate doe milk yield. In offspring’s, post-weaning growth showed positive
response with normal protein (16.3%)
diet supplemented with 0.1% Lacto-sacc. According to Ozimba and Lukefahr (1996)
litter size was anticipated to an important source of explained variation
within breed type, which otherwise would have existed, in part as among -
litter residual variation.
Hassanien
and Baiomy (2011) reported that
breed had significant effect on litter
weight at birth, at 14 day and at 28 days (at weaning) This indicates that the
highest values of litter weight at birth were recorded for Baladi
Red (368+27g) followed by
California(364+22g). while the values of litter weight at for Rex and
New Zealand white where 357+
25g and 351 + 25g respectively.
The highest values of litter weight at 14days recorded for California(1525+
49g) followed by Newzealand white (1494 + 63g) while those for Rex and
Baladi Red (1450+69g and 1426 +57g) respectively. The lowest
values of litter weight at weaning were recorded for Rex (2057+16g),
(Hassanien and Baiomy, 2011).
Generally,
California breed showed highest litter
weight at birth at 14 days and at weaning Hassanien and Baiomy 2011). These
results agreed with those obtained by
Seleem (2005). Litter weight of California results were similar to those
of Prayaga and Eady (2002) and Reddy et al., (2003).
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SITE/DURATION:
This study
was conducted at the Rabbitry Unit of the Teaching and Research Farm in the
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki. The experiment lasted for 8 weeks.[V11]
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND PROCEDURE:
18
in-does mixed breed were selected from the population of does’ at the rabbitry
unit and allocated into individual breeding cages. Six Dutch, six Chinchilla
and six Newzealand white were used. The in-does were monitored from conception
till kindling. They were fed ad-libitum
with commercial feed (Vital feed) supplemented with Tridax (Tridax
procumbence) and centrosema (Centrosema pubescence)[V12] . Strict medication as well as adequate sanitation
was maintained throughout the period of the experiment. The breeds of rabbits
for the experiment are the Newzealand White, Chinchilla and Dutch.
3.3 DATA COLLECTION:
Litter size
and individual litter weight were obtained immediately after kindling using
liver bell sensitive scale with minimum graduation of 0.01 grams. Using the
same weighing scale, bi-weekly body weight was also measured for 2nd,
4th, 6th, and 8th week.
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS
The
data generated were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using general
linear model (GLM) of SPSS (2009) version 16.0. Significant mean differences
observed were separated to DUNCAN’S Multiple Range Test. Phenotypic correlation
between litter traits and pre weaning weight were estimated using pooled data
from the different breeds. Similarly regression analysis was carried out to
estimate the weaning weight using litter size and birth weight of rabbits. [N13]
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT
AND DISCUSSION
Result of the effect of breed type of the litter size,
pre-weaning, weaning weight as well as the Pearson correlation co-efficient.
Table 4.1: Pre-weaning litter trait and body weight
performance of Rabbits
Breed
Parameter
|
(DUCTH)
|
(CHINCHILLA)
|
(NEWZEALAND)
|
P-value
|
Birth
weight
|
46.92
|
48.31
|
43.43
|
0.44
|
mean 2weeks
|
146.29
|
147.82
|
152.63
|
0.88
|
mean
4weeks
|
223.13
|
268.85
|
239.45
|
0.14
|
Mean
6weeks
|
283.48
|
355.29
|
285.49
|
0.13
|
Mean
8weeks
|
440.67b
|
530.64a
|
443.75b
|
0.04
|
Litter
size at birth
|
5.83
|
5.17
|
5.67
|
0.54
|
Litter
size at weaning
|
4.50
|
4.33
|
4.00
|
0.48
|
ab Means on the same row followed by different
superscripts.
BW = Body weight
Unit
of measurements = (g)
There were no significant (p>0.05)
difference in all the parameters except for 8 weeks (weaning age) which shows a
significant difference among the breeds, Chinchilla breeds is observed to have
the highest value (530.64g) at weaning (8 wks). This may be
due
to the greater numeric value (48.31g) obtained of birth weight and all through
the pre-weaning stages. This finding are in agreement with the study of
Shokoohmend et al., (2007) who worked
with Japanese quail and indicated that selection for body weight at early ages
had positive effect on body weight at later ages. Similarly, McNitt and moody
(1988) and Lukefahr et al., (1990)
identified pre-weaning variable as major factor that affects post-weaning
performance of rabbits. This implies that an improved economic traits of
pre-weaning stage, could lead to better weaning weight. This result may also be
attributed to a greater heritable traits in growth parameters of chinchilla as
reported by Lukefahr (1987) since chinchilla breed of rabbit is characterized
by fast growth rate and mothering ability Okorie (1983) the implication of this
is that chinchilla breed of rabbit have high milk yielding capacity for
maintenance of their kits and the genetic potential to transmit desirable genes
for fast growth rate. However the birth
weight (43.43-46.92g) obtained from this findings does not agree with Poigner et al., (2000), who reported that
individual birth weight is about 60-70g but can also range from 35 -40g and
80-90g which may be determined by litter size.
There were no significant
(P>0.05) difference in the litter sizes at birth and weaning respectively.
But numerically, Dutch (5.83g) is better of than New Zealand (5:67g) and
chinchilla (5.17g) Whereas, in the litter size at weaning Dutch (4.50g) and
Chinchilla (4.33g) had a higher value as against Newzealand white (4.00g). This
implies that greater mortality was recorded for both Dutch and Newzealand white
as compared to chinchilla. The lower rate of mortality observed in chinchilla
may be attributed to its high milk yielding and good mothering ability which
may have boosted the survival rate of the kits. This confirms the observation
made by Okorie (1983).
Table 4.2: Pearson correlation
co-efficient between the litter traits and body weight at different ages
BWB
|
2wks
|
4wks
|
6wks
|
8wks
|
Litter
Size at birth
|
Litter
Size at weaning
|
|
Body
wt
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
2wks
|
0.29
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
4wks
|
0.25
|
0.531*
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
6wks
|
0.92
|
0.381*
|
0.893**
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
8wks
(weaning)
|
0.26
|
0.481
|
0.095**
|
0.938**
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Littersize
at birth
|
-0.20
|
0.31
|
0.146
|
0.30
|
0.0113
|
-
|
-
|
Littersize
at weaning
|
0.25
|
0.437
|
0.276
|
0.28
|
0.28
|
0.525*
|
-
|
*Correction
is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**
Correction is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The
Pearson correlation co-efficient of Birth pre- weaning body weights, litter
size at birth and at weaning of rabbits. Body weight at 2nd(0.531*)
6th(0.381*) week shows a positive (p<0.05) correlation
co-efficient. A very high positive (p<0.01) correlation co-efficient in
weaning weight (0.095** and 0.938**) was recorded. The litter size at weaning
also showed a positive (p<0.05) correlation co-efficient of 0.525**.
Table 4.3: Regression Coefficient for Litter Size And Birth Weight of Rabbit.
Model
1
|
Un-standardized
coefficient
|
Standard
coefficient
|
|||||||
B
|
Std-error
|
Beta
|
R
|
R2
|
T
|
Sig
|
95%
confidence intervals
|
||
Lower
bound
|
Upper
bound
|
||||||||
Constant
|
253.807
|
180.049
|
0.305a
|
0.093
|
1.410
|
0.179ns
|
|||
Litter
size at birth
|
12.097
|
17.922
|
0.169
|
0.305a
|
0.093
|
0.675
|
0.510ns
|
5.038
|
|
Weight
at birth
|
3.258
|
2.830
|
0.289
|
1.51
|
2.2801
|
1.151
|
0.268ns
|
42.94
|
49.50
|
Significant
(P>0.05)
|
|||||||||
Regression
equation (weaning = 253.887+12.09(Litter size birth) + 3.258(weight at birth).
The regression analysis for litter
size at birth and birth weight (table 3) shows no significant (P>0.05)
difference and had a low coefficient of determination (R) which is 0.305a,
for the litter size at birth and birth weight. This indicates that the
prediction equation obtained in this study may not be effective in predicting
the litter size at birth weight at birth and weaning (8wks) weights for the
breeds of rabbit. This equation disagrees with the models established by
Adenowo and Omoniyi (2004), and Adeleke et
al., 2004).
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
Rabbit rearing has several unique advantages over
other farm species including poultry, ruminants and pigs (Berepubo, 1994).
These advantages are;
The undue emphasis on poultry, ruminants pig and other
so-called “conventional” livestock to produce the much needed animal protein
for the teeming populace has not yielded expected dividends. In each case, the
constraints have been either prohibitive feed and input costs or a relatively
slow production cycle. On the contrary, rabbits are very prolific (producing at
least 4-5 litters per year of 6-8 kittens/litter under the traditional
management system). Also, the cost of housing, equipment and feeding is
relatively low.
Rabbit
do not compete with man completely for scarce grains; they could rely solely or
largely on rich forages and kitchen waste to satisfy their basic nutritional
needs,
The
delicious rabbit meat (Lagomeat) is much lower in fat/cholesterol content as reported
by Berepubo (1994), but much higher in
good quality protein than most other known meat.
Rabbit
pelts (ie, their preserved skins with the fur on) are used in the manufacture
of small valuables like ladies purses, table mats, hand bags and bed-room slippers.
The
Breed performance is one the major factors farmers should consider in
establishing rabbit industry. In this study, the performance of Chinchilla
breed of rabbit gave the best results in terms of birth weight, weaning as
against that of Newzealand white and Dutch. The improvement and sustainability
of rabbit production in this part of the country will depend on how best
selection is made as regards to choice of genotypes and how well the breeding
programme is planned. Breeders need to exploit population to bring about
improvement in the growth traits. The impact on the animal protein production
and consumption of the citizenry will justify the effort. However, further
investigation is required for the study with larger numbers or rabbits. With larger
mating population and possible higher parities and resulting progeny, it can be
argued that more significance could be found.
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REGRESSION
MODEL SUMMARY
Model
|
R
|
R square
|
Adjusted
R Square
|
Std. Error of the estimate
|
1
|
0.3059
|
0.093
|
-0.028
|
75.4868
|
a. Predictors:
(constant), WT@BRT, LITASIZ@BRT
ANOVA
Model
|
Sum of
Squares
|
Degree of freedom
|
Mean
Square
|
Freedom
|
Significance
|
||||
Regression
|
8755.968
|
2
|
4377.984
|
0.768
|
0.4819
|
||||
Residual
|
85473.865
|
15
|
5698.258
|
||||||
Total
|
94229.833
|
17
|
|||||||
a. Predictor:
(constant), WT@BRT, LITASIZ@B, LITASIZ@B
b. Dependent
Variable: EightWk WT
COEFFICIENTS
|
|||||||||
Model
|
Unstandardized
Coefficients
|
Standardized
coefficients
|
|||||||
B Std. Error
|
Std. error
|
Beta
|
T
|
Sig
|
|||||
1. (constant)
litasiz@birth wt@birth
|
253.887
|
180.49
|
1.410
|
0.179
|
|||||
12.097
|
17.922
|
0.169
|
0.675
|
0.510
|
|||||
3.258
|
2.830
|
0.289
|
1.151
|
0.268
|
|||||
1.
Dependent variable: Eightwk wt
Regression Equation
Weaning
Eightwk wt(weaning weight) = 253.887 +
12.097 (Litasiz@birth + 3.258 (wt @ birth)