UNIT 1
To
ensure that the organs and systems perform their functions, maintenance and
promotion is necessary. Promotion means enhancing health status while
maintenance means preserving that which one has to enhance good health.
BODY SYSTEMS
OF FNXNS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS THEY FULFILL
BODY
SYSTEM FUNCTION
Respiratory system gaseous
exchange. Elimination of waste, communication through the voice box.
Digestive system Food
and nutrition. Elimination of waste.
Cardio-Vsacular System Internal transportation and protection against foreign bodies; protection
by white corpuscles.
Lymphatic System Internal
transportation and protection against foreign bodies.
Urinary system Elimination
of waste and water
Nervous system Communication,
protection through reflex action.
Endocrine system Communication
through adrenalin which helps the body be at alert;
protection.
Mucous membrane Protection
against dust in the air tract.
Productive System Reproduction
and continuity of life of specie
Skeletal system movement
and leverage through the joints
Muscular system Movement
and locomotion.
CONCEPT OF
HEALTH STATUS AND MEANING OF PERSONAL HEALTH
Health
status describes one’s level of health or level of well being of an
individual.
It
changes from time to time, day to day. Health status is an and social
environments.
COMPONENTS OF
WELL BEING
This is made up of 5 inter-related fitness
dimensions. They are:-
1.
Physical dimension or physical fitness
2.
Emotional or mental fitness
3.
Social fitness
4.
Spiritual fitness
5.
Cultural fitness
P E S S C
H M O P U
Y O C I L
S I I R T
I I I U
C O A T R
A N A
L A A L
These form a whole, not
separate entities. The easiest to identify is the physical. It concerns the
maintenance of body processes which facilitate the ability to resist infection.
Emotional deals with feelings, through self identify of individuals. It facilitates
a human approach to situations and sharing of interest.
Spiritual is concerned with
aspirations and ideals; acknowledgment of a supreme being or creator.
It facilitates a sense of worth and purpose of life
cultural deals with identification with the community.
It facilitates responsible involvement in community
affairs.
LEVELS OF WELL
BEING
The level of well being is determined by a number of
factors. Such factors include heredity, environment or behaviour.
The
aim of health education, is to help each one reach his optional health. Level
of health can be visualized as a step ladder with the lowest bottom and the
highest of the top.
 |
Optimal
Health
High
Level Moderate
Level
Minor
Illness 
Major
Illness 
Critical
Illness 
Moribund
State 
Health
maintenance
Health maintenance is an aspect of health care.
It includes services/ measures directed at
prevention of illness, and directed at maintenance of health as well as
preventing conditions from getting worse.
The
services directed at health maintenance include:-
1.
Primary care – which includes health counseling and health education.
2.
emergency care – which includes first aid.
3.
rehabilitation for chronic (asthma) and disabling (sickles cell anemia)
conditions
4.
health insurance which is pre-payment plan for unpredicted expenses of
illness, accidents and medical care.
HEALTH
PROMOTION
This aims at the attainment of health, i.e.
enabling an individual to attain the highest possible level of health for which
the person has potentials. They include measures and activities emerged upon to
enhance or maximize the efficiency of organs and systems of the body. The measures
include exercise. It include service measures directed at prevention of
illness, nutrition.
UNIT III
SOURCES OF
WELL-BEING
1. Homeostasis: This is term coined by a
French physiologist called Claude Bernard. He was the one who discovered the
principle of homeostasis, which is the state of equilibrium conditions and
regular fluctuations that must be maintained in a state of equilibrium or
constancy, in order that life may continue. Homeostasis means that there is a
natural mechanism operates through the various body systems under the control
of the nervous system aided by the hormones.
2. Regulation of body Temperature: The
body temperature is usually maintained at about 370C or 918.40F.
for optimum health to operate, the body temperature must not vary too much or
for a long time from the normal level, even though the temperature of the deeper
lavers of the body is slightly higher then the temperature of the periphery of
the body. There are many organs and activities involved in regulation of body
temperature. They include:-
a. The
circulation of blood
b. The
skin
c. The
lungs
d. The
kidneys
There
are two mechanisms in the body that balance themselves to maintain body
temperature. They are:-
Mechanism of heat production and mechanism of heat
loss.
i. Mechanism
of heat production includes:-
a. the breaking down of food,
b. muscular activities (exercises)
c. nervous
control initiated from the vasomotor centre of the medulla oblongata
ii. Mechanism of heat loss includes:-
a.
radiation by direct contact
b.
evaporation of sweet causes heat loss and in addition water and salt
c.
expired air
d.
urine and stool.
3. Hormonal System: Hormones are chemical
substances produced by the endocrine glands. The pituitary gland has been
described as the ‘master gland’ because it produces many hormones.
The
hormonal system serves as a source of well being through the following ways.
1.
Coordination effect of the pituitary gland
2.
Maintenance of blood sugar level
3.
Maintenance of oestrogen level in female
4.
the protective effect of adrenalin
5.
effect of sex hormones on growth and development of secondary sex characteristics
6.
effects of the thyroid gland on carbohydrate metabolism.
OXYGEN
TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY
The oxygen transport system of the body is
responsible for oxidation. It is operated by the heart and the lungs.
Oxidation
involves the consumption of 02 for the production of energy. The red
blood cells carry 02 in the form of oxy-haemoglobin to the tissues
and cells of the body. The 02 carried by the RBC is given off to the
cells and C0s combines with RBC to form carbinohaeolgobin.
The
C02 and water are released in the lungs. The 02 transport
system is in control of the 02 transport system so that rapid
charges environment can occur.
Physical
education pays a good deal of attention to the building up of reserve for the
heart and lungs thereby contributes to the efficiency of the transport system.
FACTORS
RESPONSIBLE FOR OXYGEN TRANSPORT SYSTEM
1.
good muscle tone
2.
good posture
3.
activity or exercise
4.
deep breathing exercise
5.
good ventilation
Factors that adversely affect 02 transport
system
1.
inactivity or lack of exercise
2.
neglect of or poor posture
3.
nicotine has direct effect on the heart and blood vessels as follows:
a.
by producing rapid heart beat
b.
by raising blood pressure
c.
by impeding entrance of air through the lungs
d.
compound that mixes with heamoglabin thereby reducing the oxygen
carrying power of RBC.
5. Body physique and posture
Another
term for body physique is some to type. A gentleman known as Sheldon classified
body forms or physique on the basis of three (3) primary phenotype:-
1.
Ectomophy
2.
mesomrophy
3.
primary phenotype
The ectomorph is thin and
skinny and lanky. He has a predominance healthy disposition. He is good at
sprints but he is prone to poor posture because of narrow skeletal frame work.
He also feels cold easily because of maximal sub-coetaneous fat. The person
lacks stamina and tries easily.
The esomorph has a
predominance of muscular tissue. He has good posture and is good at throwing
events or weight lofting. He is energetic and is generally healthy.
The endomorph has a
predominance of visceral tissue. He tends to be obese and flabby. He is good at
weight (shot) put and wrestling. He has a broad skeletal framework which
facilitates balance but he is prone to poor muscle tone heart disease and
diabetes mellitus.
Posture: Barlow (1956) defined
postures as “the relationship of the different parts of the body which ensures
the most efficient behavioural parts of the body which ensures the most
efficient behavioural and physiological functioning both now and in the future.
Posture includes activities such as reclining, sitting, standing, bending,
squatting and other bodily positions and movements.
FACTORS WHICH
DETERMINES POSTURE
1.
Vertebral column- the carnation and the position makes the vertebral
column an important factor in posture.
2.
Muscular efficiency
3.
Efficiency of the nervour system
4.
nutritional state of an individual
5.
absence of pain and disease
6.
habit – good and bad postures can be formed from habit.
Effects of
good Posture
1.
Improved physical appearance and self impression/ image including the
personality of the individual
2.
Ensures appropriate positioning of organs for efficiency functioning
e.g. the lungs, cardio cascular system, the digestive system etc.
3.
Good posture fatigue and strain
4.
Good posture aids mechanical use of the body.
Types of
Posture
1.
‘Slumped’- characterized by dropping shoulders, hunched back,
protruding abdomen,
2.
‘Expanded’ – showing eased up and relaxed disposition
3.
Contracted – stiff and erect with chest out abdomen pulled in, commonly
found with the military
4.
Specific posture for specific situations such as sitting, squatting,
bending etc.
BODY DEFENCES
AGAINST INFECTIONS AND DISEASES
There are certain factors that help the body
resist infection. They are:-
1. Physical
barriers
a. The skin: this must be intact, meaning
that there is no wound or cut. The skin is aided by the production of
antiseptic substances; such as swat and by the presence of hairs.
b. the bony cages. They serve as barriers
or protection for organs contained in the body cavities.
2. Mucous
membrane. It must also be intact.
This membrane has a layer of
mucus on it which can strap substances and micro-organisms.
In addition some mucous
membrane possess cilia; the surface of the mucous membrane is moist.
3. Glandular
activities:
a. Production of tears by the lachrymal
glands which protect the eyes because tears contain an antiseptic substance
which is capable of dissolving bacteria. This substance is called lysozyme.
b. hydrochlor acid contained in gastric
juice produced by the stomach and it ingests bacteria.
4. Polymorphous
clear leucocytes:
They
are a firm of white blood cells and are pharagogtic in action and some of them
are amoeboid in action. Other cells that have phagocytic action in the body are
the cells of the sinusoids in the liver and in the spleen.
5. Connective
tissue cells which multiply to form granulation tissue in cases of healing by
secondary intention (healing following infection), and in case of healing of
abscesses.
6. lymphoid/Lymphatic
tissue
a. Lymphoid tissue found in
the pharynx (adenoids and tonsils) and is the small intertine (aggregate lymph
nodes)
b. lymph nodes – which
filter lymph carrying harmful substances
c. lymphocytes – concerned
with production of antibodies
7. Antibodies
and antifoxins contained in the plasma.
8. Reflex responses: there are reflex centres situated in the
medulla oblongata e.g reflex centres
situated in the medulla oblongata e.g the reflex centres for sneezing and
coughing.
9. Immunity. This is the capacity of the body to resist
infection. It provides a protected state and it affords specific resistance to
infections. These are two substances involved in immunity
i. antigen is a substance that stimulates
the formation of antibodies.
ii. antibody is a protein or substance
formed in the as a result of contact with an antigen.
CLASSIFICATION
OF IMMUNITY
Immunity
|
Natural of Genetic
|
Artificial or Acquired
|
||
|
Active
|
Passive
|
Active
|
Passive
|
|
-
Through overt or’
|
-
From mother’
|
-
Injection of
|
‘Ready
made
|
|
clinical
attacks’
|
to
child eg
|
antigen
for
|
‘antibodies
|
|
or
sub-clinical ‘
|
through
breast
|
the
production
|
‘e.g
anti-
|
|
attacks
e.g smallpox,
|
feedings
|
Of
antibodies
|
‘tetanus
|
|
measles
polio-mellitus‘
|
Placenta’
|
e.g
tentanus
|
‘serum
|
|
etc
|
e.g
malaria
|
toxoid
|
‘(ATS)
|
In
active artificial immunity an antigen is injected into the body to cause it to
produce antibodies against a particular diseases. In this regard, the body
plays an active part in the production of antibodies. A typical example of an antigen is the tetanus
toxoid.
In
the passive artificial immunity ready-made antibodies are injected into the
body. A typical example of a ready-made antibodies is the antitetanus serum
(ATS). The body does not take part in the production of the antibodies and so
its effect lasts only for a few weeks or month.
Immunization:-
This is a purposeful introduction into the body of small does of antigen so
that the body can produce antibodies against a specific disease. The antigen
that is injected may be weakened or attenuated or even de-toxicated toxin. The
body takes part in the production of the antibodies.
FACTORS THAT
ENHANCE ORGAN EFFICIENCY
1. Nutrition:-
Meaning and definition
-
function of nutrition
-
consequences of poor nutrition
Nutrition as the sum of the processes by which the
body takes on, and utilizes food. It is the story of food, and the use the body
makes of it. It includes diet, digestion and metabolism.
Nutrition
ensures that the cells are in perfect condition and so can withstand the
attacks or effect of infection. Because the cells are in good condition, if
they happen to suffer form any infection they can recover very quickly. When
the cells are in good condition the organs will function effectively.
Poor
nutrition leads to deficiency diseases (kwashiokor) and malnutrition, and subs
quietly to death.
2. Exercise and Activity
Read up: effects of exercise
on the various organs of the body: the heart lungs and blood circulation.
3. Rest and the Circadian cycle/
Rhythm
Rest is characterized by a period of
inactivity, quiet and mediation. However, the conscious mind still functions.
Relaxation
is a change of place in activity:
It helps to reduce tension and reduce the stresses
of living. The ability for relaxation can be cultivated or learnt through
training. Relaxation result in improved efficiency and increased enjoyment or
life.
The
circadian cycle/ Rhythm is a natural or normal and traditional pattern or
rhythm of living which consists of work and other activities during daylight
followed by sleep or rest during the hours of darkness, following roughly the
“circadian” or 24hr. period.
Christianity
and Judaism and to some extent Islam introduced those favoruable pattern of
living into civilization in the form of a rest-day every 7th day.
Even seasonal variations and terrestrial environment dictated or directed human
living e.g farming was done during the rainy season and harvest during the dry
season.
With
the advent of industry and development of technology as well as economic
necessity man has been led to break off from the natural expectation. In
addition, economic and political considerations often determine dead-lines in
contemporary times.
The
use of artificial lighting and traits of rigid measurement of efficiency have
made possible working and activities during the hours of darkness.
Deliberate
and persistent violation of the biological or circadian rhythm affect
well-being and affect performance eg (a) they can create tension (b) irritability
(c) poor timing (d) depression (e) loss of coordination (f) muscular fatigue
(g) visual disturbances
4. Physical
Fitness
This
implies a condition of readiness and is an important ingredient for success. It
is the ability to carry out one’s work without unnecessary fatigue and still
have some reserve energy to enjoy social activities.
A
physically fit person is one who possesses adequate strength and endurance to
carry out his daily activities without undue fatigue and still have sufficient energy to enjoy
leisure and to meet unforeseen circumstances (emergencies). The organic
capacity of an individual to perform the normal task of daily living without
undue tiredness or fatigue and yet have reserve strength and energy available
to meet satisfactorily emergencies demands on physical fitness. Physical
fitness facilitates ability to resist infection.
COMPONENTS OF
PHYSICAL FITNESS
There are 2 major components – health related
and skill – related.
The
health related are eh fundamental components needed for good health. They
consist of strength, endurances, flexibility, cardio-vascular efficiency and
respiratory efficiency.
The
skill- related are the component that is necessary for performing physical work
and activity. They include agility, coordination, balance, speed, reaction
time, accuracy.
Total
fitness:- is a combination of physical fitness and inter-related qualities, and
potentials eg heredity, emotional stability, social consciousness, attitudes
etc.
Among
all these components strength, endurance and coordination are considered to be
the basic elements for physical fitness because good performance on these
elements for physical fitness. The performance of these elements depends on
age, sex, health status, anatomical and biochemical conditions.
MEASUREMENT OF
PHYSICAL FITNESS
There are no single standard that can be used
to judge the physical fitness of everybody. However, it can be measured or
estimated of pull-ups, still-ups ter-metre shuttle run, standing broad jump,
45m dash, 540m run – walk, basket ball throw for distance.
5. HEALTH SERVICES AND MEDICAL
CHECK-UPS
Health services provide opportunity for
health appraisal, diagnosis, referral, treatment of illness, rehabilitation,
prevention, monitoring or check up or control of diseases.
There
are health facilities that promote health they include:-
Structures
and equipment and operatic to facilitate functional health services and to
promote desirable health habits. Health facilities include health institutions
that is hospital, health centres immunization centre etc. They also include
hand-washing basins, toilets etc.
6. Social
amentias: which include water supply, sanitation, disposal, nector control,
protection of food, housing, water is essential to life. Water that is safe is
called potable water. It is used in domestic activities, agriculture and recreation.
It is an effective factor for good sanitation and sewage disposals.
7. Health
Education: A method of encouraging people to adopt measures which are
beneficial to their health and to reject those that are harmful to their
health.
Health
education provides knowledge about the position, structure and functions of
organs so the individual can recognize when there is deviation from normal. It
also provides an awareness of the position and role of organs. It helps in the
acquisition of skills for handling emergencies and sudden illness and skills
for forming desirable health habits. Health education sets acceptable standards
of health behaviour. It also encourages values for things that promote health.
Health
education facilitates the prevention of diseases. It provides knowledge of the
limitations and potentials of the different body types. It creates awareness of
the consequences of undesirable behaviour.
8. Health
Insurance:- refers to the pre-payment plan/ scheme for unpredicted expenses of
illness, accidents, and medical care over a period of time.
Types
1. Hospital
expense protection:
This
type of plan involves payment of hospital bills up to particular length of
period or a particular amount of money.
2. Regular
medical care:- payment is made to cover routine medical care or check up over
an unspecified period.
3. Loss-of-income
protection:-
This
may be from disability or indemnity. It is a plan that guarantees cash benefits
for a portion of normal salary recuperation from illness or accidents. The
payment accruing from the plan starts after a specified period of disability
and continues up to maximum time.
AGENCIES THAT
PROVIDE HEALTH INSURANCE
1.
Government agencies 2 employers
2.
Insurance companies
3.
Private arrangement with a
physician
The
benefits of health insurance
1.
Health insurance relieves anxiety
2.
It promotes job satisfaction and happiness for the employed
3.
It gives security
4.
It facilitates utilization of appropriate health services.
5.
It facilitates adoption of appropriate health action.
HEALTH
MAINTENANCE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The aim of maintenance is to ensure that the
system continues to perform its normal function effectively.
STRUCTURE OF
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The role of
the respiratory system
1.
The respiratory tract serves as a mechanism for communication this is a
result of vocal cords in the larynx.
2.
The transportation of oxygen
3.
Removal of waste products to C02 and H20
4.
Protection due to the presence of collie.
Maintenance of the system:
1.
Encouragement of nose breathing, because of the hair, mucous membrane
etc.
2.
Improved ventilation by ensuring cross ventilation, use of fans or air
conditioner.
3.
Installation of air filters and air conditioner
4.
Isolation of cases of air-borne infections and restricting persons with
cold and influenza
5.
Proper disposal of sputum and controlled spitting.
6.
Avoidance of over crowding
7.
Damp dusting
8.
Immunization against air borne infections such as measles, diphtheria,
polio, meningitis.
9.
eradication of air borne infections
10.
adaptation of proper posture: if one sits well the thoracic cavity will
be large enough for proper respiration.
The cardio
vascular system (cvs)
Structure:-
1.
Special muscle cells in the heart = they are branched and inter
connected and so can contract simultaneously.
2.
Length and position of the coronamy a branch of the aorta; and supplies
blood to the musical of the heart.
3.
Special structure of blood vessels, especially artery
4.
Resistance in the blood vessels especially artery which accounts for
blood pressure.
5.
presence of values in the veins of the legs.
6.
presence of red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC) and platelets
in the blood.
7.
the presence of antibodies and antitoxins.
Role of
cardio vsaculas system
1.
It is responsible for the transpiration of nutrients to the cells
2.
transportation of 02 to the cells during circulation of blood round the
body.
3.
transportation of hormones
4.
transportation of waste products
5.
protection of the body through the presence of leucocytes and the
mechanism of blood clothing.
Maintenance of
C.V.S
1.
Regulated exercise which facilitates blood circulation
2.
Encouragement or rest
3.
avoidance of stress
4.
avoidance of cardiac stimulants
5.
medical check up especially blood pressure
6.
avoidance of infections of the heart eg German measles.
7.
Peristalsis
The role of
the digestive system:
1.
digestion and absorption of digested food
2.
removal of waste products in the form of H20 and faces
3.
provision of nutrients
4.
production of enzymes
5.
protective role by the production of HCL and the presence of lymph
nodes with small intestine.
MAINTENANCE OF
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1.
Application of food hygiene and cleanliness of food both at the
preparation and serving stages.
2.
Avoidance of contaminated food
3.
Avoidance of food that are potentially poisonous eg mushrooms
4.
Encouragement to establish at regular intervals and to avoid irregular
eating.
5.
Avoid constipation and therefore encourage voiding regularly
6.
Avoidance of very hot and peppery food.
7.
inclusion of roughages and fruits in diets.
Urinary system
The structure
1.
The presence of nephness
2.
The bladder serves as a reservoir and has a limited capacity
3.
the presence of prostrate gland in close relationship with the urinary
system in the male
4.
The urinary system in the male serves as a common passage of urine and
semen.
5.
The urethral opening in females is in close anatomical relationship to
the vagina and anus.
6.
The foreskin or prepuce in the male can serve as a site of infection.
7.
The ureters have very narrow tracts
8.
The length of the male urethral pre-disposes it to problems.
Maintenance of
urinary system
1.
Encourage regulated exercise
2.
encourage regulated exercise
3.
avoidance of substances which are toxic to the kidneys
4.
encourage cleanliness of the vulva in the female
5.
encouragement of male circumcision or cleansing of the foreskin/
prepuce.
The role of
the urinary system
1.
Formation of urine
2.
responsible for water balance
3.
responsible for alterlisity of blood
4.
responsible for osmo-regulation
5.
removal of nitrogenous wastes
Reproductive
System
Structure:-
1.
The organs of the male reproductive system are mainly external
2.
The male reproductive system is closely related to the male urinary
tract.
3.
The organs of the female reproductive system are mainly internal
4.
The vaginal orifix is in close anatomical relationship with the anus.
5.
The lumen of the uterine tube in the female are obliterated
6.
There is an access from the exterior into the peritoneal cavity through
the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes).
Role of the
reproductive system
1.
Production of gamete (sex cells – or sperm)
2.
Production of sex hormones (progesterone and testosterone)
3.
Production of secondary sexual characteristics
4.
responsible for menstrual cycle
5.
responsible for pregnancy and child – birth
Maintenance
1.
Cleanliness of genital organs
2.
avoidance of misuse and abuse of the genital organs
3.
observance of privacy and respect for the genital organs during
menstruation.
4.
Care of the genital organs during post – natal period
5.
Avoidance of illegal abortion
6.
avoidance of tight clothing over the genital organs in the male.
7.
avoidance of parotitis (mumps)
8.
judicious use of contraceptive pills
9.
avoidance of multination of the female external genital organs.
10.
provision of education.
Nervous
System
1.
Nervous system has a special property of irritability
2.
The cells of the nervous system cannot regenerate
3.
the bran cortical areas which perform specific (functions
4.
the spinal cord ends between the 1st and 2nd
lumber vertebrae
5.
carebio- spinal fluid surrounds the brain and spinal cord and it
contains nutrients, inorganic salts etc.
6.
the brain is delicate and complex
The Role of
The Nervous System
1.
Coordination activities in the body
2.
awareness of impulses in the environ
3.
it is responsible for knowledge retention
4.
the cortical areas in the brain perform specific functions such as
vision, hearing, movement etc.
5.
Intellectual activities are performed within the nervous system
6.
the nervous system is protective through relaying of aforementioned.
Maintenance of
The Nervous System
1.
Encouragement of relaxation
2.
avoidance of stimulants
3.
avoidance of injury to the nervous system
4.
avoidance of stress
5.
encourage adequate stimulation (or be active and think, engage in
healthy arguments)
6.
avoidance of wine, because it irritates the nervous system
7.
periodic medical check up especially the blood pressure.
Maintenance of
sense organs
These include the eyes, ears and mouth.
The eyes: visual
health
Structure: the
lens is transparent
The cornea, aqueous humar, the vitreous reflect
light rays.
The
cilismy muscles control the shape of the lens by contraction. The mod and cane
cells situated in the retina are sensible to light rays and they also transmit
the impulse of light the brain. The visual area is responsible for receiving
and interpreting visual impulses. The vitreous humour cannot be replaced. The
visual purple beaches is the sunlight and ‘Vitamin A’ is necessary for its
replacement.
The role of
the eye
1.
The eyes are the receptors and transmitters of visual stimuli
2.
The two eyes work in coordinated fashion
3.
interpretation of visual impulses is done by the brain
4.
perception is a mental process
which gives meaning through visual, auditory, olfactory and experiences.
5.
vision used for reading, driving is a visual impression.
Maintenance of
visual health
1.
Ensuring the cleanliness of the eyes by simple washing with soap and
water but not with caustic soap.
2.
avoidance of caustic materials on the eyes
3.
encouraging routine check up
4.
avoidance of visual fatigue
5.
avoidance of reading in a moving vehicle
6.
encouragement to read in clear light
7.
avoidance of glare (harmful to the cells in the retina) or dim light
8.
Avoidance of working directly at the sun because of the harmful effect
of infra red on the retina
9.
avoidance of eye injury
10.
recognition of symptoms of eye problems e.g persistent blinking,
aversion to light, watery or discharging eyes blurred vision sports before the
eye, inflammation of the eyes etc.
11.
avoidance of cheap, plastic sun glasses.
12.
seeking and obtaining expert care in case of eye injury
13.
adequate intake of vitamin A n the diet
14.
adoption of correct posture for reading.
Visual
Abnormalities
Eye defects – refers to irregularities in the
anatomical structure of the eyes which distort the reception of visual stimuli
e.g myopia (near sightedness) – the viction sees near objects clearly but not
far objects. The image of the point of focus of as object is “in front of” the
retina instead of “on” the retina.
The
predisposing factors to myopic include:
1.
Poor lighting or dim light
2.
poor posture 3. pubertal changes
Correction of myopia requires a concave lens in
front of the eyes
Hyperopia- far sightedness
The victim sees far objects clearly, but not near
objects. The light rays focus behind the retina at a normal distance. It is
commonly associated with ageing because of loss of muscle tone of the ciliary
muscles. When hyperopia requires convex
lens.
Astigmatism – distortion of light rays in a manner
that they are not focused at a single point on the retina. It is due to unequal
curvatures on the surface of the lens. The correction is cylindrical lens.
Strabismus – squint (cross- eyed). It is due to
uncoordinated movement of the eyeballs due to unequal tension in the extrinsic
muscles of the eye.
Amblyopia – refer to seeing clearly only in one eye
even though the other eye is free of diseases. It is due to lack of balance and
coordination between the eyes. Colour blindness/ deficiency – the individuals
is unable to distinguish between colours or certain colorus.
Eye
Disorders
Refers to ailment r disease conditions of the eye.
1.
Glaucoma – increase in intra ocular fluid pressure within the eyeball
due to blockage or constriction of
the outflow duct.
2.
Cataract – opacity (opaque) of the lens such that light cannot pass
through
3.
Retinal diseases which lead to blindness
4.
Eye injuries of various types.
Hearing/ Auditory System
Structure:
1. Presence and position of the
tympanic membrane which is very delicate.
2. The ear has a conducting
ability
3. the external auditory meatus
is curved
4. there is an anatomical
connection between the middle ear and the pharynx at the pharyngeal tube or
enstachia tube.
5. the inner ear is embedded in
the temporal bone
The role of
the auditory system
1.
Organ of hearing
2.
It is also the organ of balance because of the semicircular canals
which have mere cells that transmit balance to the brain.
Maintenance of
the auditory system
1.
Avoidance of poking object into the ear.
2.
Medical check-up or screaming of the ear
3.
Avoidance of noise
4.
Avoidance of forceful blooming of nose
5.
Avoidance of head injury because the inner ear is located in the head.
6.
Adoption of safe swimming habits
Hearing
Abnormities
1.
Conductive deafness: - Due to defect in the conducting mechanism in the
ear: pina-tynpavia membrane ossicles – inner ear.
2.
nervous deafness: Due to a defect in the cochles affecting the nerve
endings, and subsequently transmission of sound waves to the brain.
3.
otitis media- Infection of the middle ear and it can be associated with
the infection of the nose and throat.
4.
Presbycusis (heard at hearing) – It is the or decrease of the hearing acuity
often due to old age or ageing. The victim may be able to hear the sound but
may be unable to distinguish what is
being said. He can not discriminate between sounds. Psychologically, the victim
seems isolated and inattentive. The condition may expose the victim to ridicule
which may have emotional effect of on the relatives of the victim. Generally,
deafness predisposes the victim to risk of accidents.
Dental
Health
·
Structure
·
Role of the teeth
·
Maintenance of dental health
·
Abnormalities of the teeth eg
dental carries (tooth decay) or hole in the teeth
2. Periodontal diseases
3. Malocclusion
4. Non-eruption of the teeth
UNIT VII
FACTORS
THAT UNDERMINE HEALTH
A.
DRUGS – are chemical substances
which have the potential to alter the normal functioning of the body or of body
organs. Drugs are beneficial for the treatment of prevention of ailment if used
according to certain professional principles. Elements of drug or chemical
substances are taken in many forms and in many settings e.g. there are chemical
substance in alcohol and tobacco and alcohol is taken in social settings. Some
drugs are poisonous or dangerous in the sense that they produce undesirable
affect on the body systems, for example drugs that affect adversely the C.N.S include
depressants, stimulants, narcotics and sedatives.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
OUTCOMES OR BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION DUE TO DRUGS
1.
Dependence – An unreasonable compulsion to take a particular drug,
usually to avoid psychic discomfort.
2.
Addiction – A chronic intoxication produced by repeated excessive
consumption of a particular drug.
3.
Drug Abuse – The excessive or persistent taking of a drug without
regard for accepted medical practice.
4.
Drug misuse – Improper used of properly prescribed drug. E.g. giving
your own prescribed drug to somebody else for an ailment, maybe similar to your
own former ailment.
ADVERSE
EFFECTS OF DRUGS
1.
Derangement of cellular metabolism, whereby it alters the normal
activities of the cell.
2.
Impaired judgment – which manifests in faculty assessment due to
influence of a particular drug.
B. LACK OF SOCIAL AMENITIES
Those
services are supposed to promote comfort and enjoyment of life. They include:
potable water, good roads, refuse disposal, recreational facilities, housing,
electricity, etc. When these things are lacking, health is undermined because
individuals cannot attain the level of health they ought to.
C. LACK OF RECREATIONAL AMENITIES
1. When recreational amenities are lacking
they can predispose individuals to poor use of leisure.
2. It can lead to discouragement f young
ones in the involvement of spots and activities though they acquire some
recreational and social skills like fair play, sprit of sportsmanship, making
friends, greeting people.
3. Personal failure to make constructive
use of leisure may result is chronic physical inactivity.
4. Pre-occupation – economic and domestic
problem because of lack of other meaningful diversion.
5. Failure of planning in personal life
because of pre-occupation in social problems.
6. Increased chances of psycho-somatic
symptoms.
D. SEXUALLING TRANSMITTED DISEASES
1. They can adversely affect body organs
2. They can give rise to infertility
3. They can affect production of sex cells
4. STD carries or social stigma
(co-ordination by the public) The carried feels guilty all time.
5. Some of them are destructive on body
organs – Sydriles affects nervous system and visual system and can cause death
of the unborn baby
e. neglect,
misuse and abuse of body organs and environment
Neglect – Inactivity of the body can cause damage to the body organs (law of
use and disuse)
MISUSE – Using a body for a
function which nature did not equip it for.
Abuse
– Introducing into the body substances which are harmful – e.g. smoking. Using
the sexual organs to raise money (prostitutes)
The
Environment
(1) Excavation which rise to erosion and potholes and stagnant
water which are veritable breeding places for insects and rodents which cause
disease.
(2) Indiscriminate erection of batchers causing over crowding
(3) Slum formation – collection of make – shift shelters in an
over crowded setting.
(4) Indiscriminate disposal of refuse
(5) Indiscriminate disposal of sewage
(6) Emission of smoke into the atmospheres from factories, engines
(auto mobiles)
(7) Improper use of natural sources of water- stream and river
(8) Discharge of factory wastes, some of which are poisonous.
(9) Indiscriminate farming detracting from anesthetics and
reducing open spaces for recreation.
THE ROLE OF
HEALTH EDUCATION IN THE PROMOTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH
1.
Provision of knowledge about position of structure and functions of
body organs.
2.
Provision of awareness of position and roles of body organs
3.
Enablement of acquisition of skills for maintenance of health hand
washing, personal hygiene, brushing of teething etc.
4.
health education sets acceptable standards of healthy behaviour
5.
It encourages the inculcation of values and appreciation of values for
things that promote health.
6.
It facilitates prevention of infections.
7.
It provides knowledge about body types and their potentials and
limitations in relation to maintenance of health.
8.
Health education provides knowledge of the role and importance of
posture to health, facilitates the development of skills for dealing with emergency
situations and sudden illness
9.
It develops awareness of the consequences of undesirable behaviour.
The role of record keeping and research in the
promotion and maintenance of health
Health
records refer to the documented information that pertains to health. It
includes records of the health statistics showing birth and death rates. The
records will also reveal the types of diseases that are sporadic, endemic or
epidemic. It will also reveal the ages when people die, for example. Good
statistics of this nature can show a government how many children die in
infancy, a year, at school age, and the type of illness that causes great
mortality at particular stages of life.
Health
records of treatment can inform drug distributors and manufactures which type
of drug is used and the degree of its efficiency. Statistics of this nature
collected from various clinics, hospitals etc are necessary to forecast what
diseases a state or country could expect in the future if past records are
reliable. The government uses these records to plan the medical and health
services of the state.
The
role of record keeping in the promotion and maintenance of health cannot be
over emphasized. This is because it is through these records that the
effectiveness of health maintenance projects like the Expanded Programme on
Immunization (EPI) and the extent of coverage is determined. This will help
them to know the communities that need attention more than others thereby
preventing the occurrence of certain childhood killer diseases.
In
a school set –up, health records such as hospital; records will help the school
nurse to identify children who suffer from certain congenital or hereditary
diseases such as sickle cell anaemia and heamophilia. This will help her to
know the kind of attention to give these children in order to promote their
health. it will also help the teacher to know children who have physical
defects such as partial deafness or short sightedness and so on know how best
to attend to them.
The
records on past epidemics will help the community or government involved to
embark on some strategies to avoid future occurrences of such epidemics.
Such
records on the population distribution will help the government to know the
type of health services to provide for the population. For example, where the
population is dominated by infants, there will be more podiatrist hospitals or
where old people dominate there will be more old people’s homes and
rehabilitation centers.
The role of research in promotion and maintenance of
health is very important. So many researches have been carried out over the
years and have great impact on both community and personal health. Such
researches include the following:
a.
The nature of disease (pathology)
b.
Organism that cause disease (microbiology)
c.
The way in which disease – carry organism reach while population /
groups (epidemiology)
d.
Poisons and their sources (toxicology)
e.
The chemical substances needed by the body maintain health (nutrition).
f.
The function of hormones in maintaining health (endocrinology).
g.
The ways in which heredity affects health (genetics) etc.
Through research, Johann
Schole in (1939) showed that a mold-like plant was the cause of fervus, a
fungal infection of the scalp. By knowing the cause of a disease, the curative
and preventive measures become much easier to find.
Through research Louis
Pasteur laid the foundation for the modern program of disease preventives. His
studies showed that ‘diseases’ of beer and wine were produced by bacteria that
led invaded the liquid and disturbed the usual alcoholic fermentation by
producing undesirable fermentations of their own.
Basic methods of studying the bacteria are were
developed by Robert Koch. He discovers how to kill and fix bacteria and strain
them on a glass-slide for more effective study.
From such beginnings, the
science of microbiology has developed with its many applications in industry,
dairy, farming and food preservation as well as in public health and medicine.
The discovery of vaccination
by Edward Jenner in 1796 has helped a great deal in the prevention of some
deadly diseases like small pox. By introducing a mild form of small-pox into
the body of a healthy person, he will have a mild attack and become immune t
smallpox thereafter. Through vaccinations, so many diseases are being prevented
today, thus helping to maintain health.
Through research the science
of epidemiology was developed. The study of the cholera epidemic of the ‘Broad
Street Wall’ by Dr. John Snow of London
in 1854 may be regarded as the beginning of the science or epidemiology. Today,
epidemiology gives information on the relationships of the various factors
determining the frequency and distribution of diseases in a human community.
This information will help the government and individuals to device means of
protecting themselves against specific diseases, and the type of health
facilities to provide in order to prevent a disease epidemic such as cholera.
Epidemiology also provides information about the mode of transmission of
specific diseases. This information will help individuals to form desirable
health habits like closing their mouths while sneezing or coughing. This will
help in health promotion.
Through research, new
discoveries in genetics and in the development of new drugs to be used in the
treatment of mental and emotional health are being made and mortality rates
have declined greatly and more people are attaining higher levels of health.
THE
ORGANIZATIONS/BODIES INVOLVED IN MAINTENANCE AND PROMOTION OF HEALTH
INTERNATIONAL:
1. World Health Organization (WHO):-
This organization was
established by the United Nations in 1948. its main aim is to free humanity
from diseases but it also seeks to promote health of the individual in body,
mind and social adjustment. The main functions of WHO are as follows:
a.
To assist the member nation will medical personnel during emergencies
such as civil or international wars, earth-quakes, foods, epidemics or other
natural catastrophier.
b.
To assist in the training of medical and paramedical staff.
c.
To encourage and promote good health by giving health education by
means of all sorts of communication media.
d.
To give immunization against various diseases e.g. tuberculosis, polio,
smallpox etc.
e.
To give member countries information about epidemics.
2. United Nations Children’s Emergency
Fund (UNICEF):-
This is another
international agency of the United Nations created to deal with children’s
problems. The body provides various equipment. For school children,
particularly those essential for their recreational facilities. It also
provides them with free milk. The funds are also spent to provide hospitals
with milk for infants and their mothers and for the training of midwives. This
project mortality rate of children.
3. Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO):-
The FAO is a United Nation’s
(UN) agency established in 1943. It provides technical aids necessary for
better production of food both plant and animal.
4. The
Red Cross – this is a voluntary organization.
Each country has its own
national body of the Red Cross whose functions include:-
a.
Training of people during
peace: in the methods of aiding the sick, particularly victims of various
accidents at sports and games.
b.
Performing first aid activities and training personnel in first aid.
c.
The rehabilitation of victims of wars, floods, draught, earthquakes
etc.
National:
1.
Ministry of Health – responsible for the general health policy. It
provides the funds to carry out the various projects including building
programmes provision of medical personnel, equipment, and drugs.
2.
Public Health Authority - It is the duty of this body to execute health
schemes. It ensures that adequate and good water is supplied to all citizens.
It also gives mass vaccination or inoculations against smallpox, measles etc.
3.
Ministry of Information – It educates the public about government plans
through the media of posters, loudspeakers, mobile cinemas.
4.
Port Health Authority – Their functions include:-
a. To see that passengers into
or out of the country possess valid health certificates e.g. that they have
been vaccinated against diseases such as yellow fever, smallpox, cholera and
sometimes, typhoid fever.
b. They prevent passengers from
and epidemic zone from entering the country, imposing a quarantine regulation
on such persons.