It is pertinent that we note that terrorism is not a “nowadays” affair. It is a primordial activity that predates the contemporary civilization.
While global attention is focused on
embassy bombing, aircraft waking and 9/11 terrorist –attack kind of terrorism,
equally devastating terrorist activities with equally devastating terrorist are
daily swept under the carpet in Africa1.
In order to enhance better
understanding of the historical development of suicide bombing and terrorism,
we shall not deal with suicide bombing as a separate concept of terrorism. It
shall henceforth be viewed as part of terrorism.
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[1]
Suicide attacks have clearly become
the most dangerous modus operandi of modern terrorism3. It is the
newest stage in the development of bombing attacks, which have been used by
terrorist for many years. The typical type of bombing attacks carried out in
the 1970s and 1980s were time bombs.
In bombing attacks, the perpetrators
would snuggle and plant the explosives in their targeted milieu and then wait
outside the targeted environs until lots of people gathered near the
bomb-centred area. Only then would they detonate the incendiary object. The
suicide attack on the other hand and like the smart bomb, is the most
sophisticated tactic used by terrorist organizations since it provides timing
and location of the attack (which were the flaws of bombing attacks) and
therefore, produces the maximum number of casualties and damage4.
Suicide attacks were experienced during
the period of the cold war as Dr. Ganor puts it;
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[2]
suicidal
doctrines by both sides. Because as we all
know and there is no point in
dwelling on this at length
here it is the predicament of nuclear deterrent stragies that they depend on the mutual threat of suicide. In its purest form this is
known as “mutual assured
destruction” and in its popular form as “the balance
of terror”5.
Terrorism
has been on the international agenda since 1934, when the League of Nations
took the first major step towards outlawing the scourge by discussing a draft convention
for the prevention and punishment of terrorism. Although the convention was
eventually adopted in 1937, it never came in force6. This however
suggests that terrorism is not a recent activity. It has been in existence from
time immemorial. Historically, it has been noted that suicide attackers have
been used by both secular and religious groups. The Tamil tigers, a secular
group carried out most ruthless campaign of suicide attacks in the 20th
century, but causalities internationally, notably as a result of attacks by
Palestinian groups against Israelis and by organizations in various countries
believed associated with or incited by Al Qaeda7.
It will be necessary if we know that
terrorist activities were not historically carried out by men alone. The use of
women as suicide attackers is not historically unprecedented, but its frequency
among groups such as the Sir Lankan Tamil Tiger (or LTTE), the Turkish
Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), and now the Palestinian Fatah- affiliated
al-Aqsa Martyrs’ Brigades and Chechens, may indicate a social broadening of the
phenomena. While organization is predominant in the execution of the attack,
over time it cannot recruit and sustain itself without the acquiescence of the
larger soceity8.
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[3]
description
of the assailants as “fedayeen” (meaning consecrated ones or dedicated ones)
and their admiration for martyrdom in the course of killing is an often cited historical
precursor for some of the suicide attacks by Islamic terrorist organization
seen today12.
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[4]
It seems we have dwelt so long on
the historical development of terrorism in other continents making Africa a
saint free from the exponential “malady” of terrorism. This is not true.
Terrorism in Africa as it is in other continents like Asia and Europe, has had
a long history from the Sherifian dynasty of the Alawites and Filali in Morocco
to the regencies of Algeria,Tunisia and Libya under the effete suzerainty of
the sultan of turkey, the Berber- Arab population of North Africa experienced one
form of terrorism after another, even before colonial rule. The French invasion
of Algeria in 1930, the establishment of French rule in Morocco in the 1900s
and their occupation of Tunisia in 1880 were all characterized by one terrorist
act after the other. The journeys of independence in most countries of Africa
were also strewn with one act of terrorism after the other. In countries of
East Africa most especially Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, international
terrorism coalesced in the bombing of US, embassies in 1997. In Southern
Africa, notably South Africa, Botswana, Rhodesia and Zimbabwe, apartheid
orchestrated terrorism as important state policy. The West and central Africa
may not have had embassy bombing or the 9/11 type terrorist attacks, they have
nevertheless witnessed cases of aircraft hijacking, hostage taking and other
mind-boggling terrorist actions. The 1921 Oke-Ogun uprising involved commando-like
guerrilla tactics and bush-action, which ensured the decimation of more than
ten thousand souls in three weeks Jesse and Odi events in Nigeria are two
examples of state terrorism, which have placed Nigeria in the global terrorist
map. Post-independence Africa today ranks seventh in global terrorists’
incidence, third in global terrorists’ injuries and fourth in global fatalities
recorded between 1997 and 2007. Africa, unarguably, is no stranger to terrorism14.
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[5]
Terrorism summarily has had an
ancient pedigree. But aroused international or global consciousness after the
September 11th (2001) incidence by the Osama led Al Qaeda insurgent group at
the world Trade Centre. Before the 9/11 (as the world trade centre incidence is
popularly called), most terrorist activities were carried out by freedom
fighters. This freedom fight could be to protect one’s religious belief, to
protect one’s civil right, to maintain one’s superior position in race, ethnicity
and religion.
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embraced
the same notions of self-sacrifice and suicidal martyrdom evident in some
Islamic terrorist groups today. They regarded violence as sacramental or divine
act that ensured its perpetrators would ascent task (Rapport 1981). There is a
popular lore among the southern Nigerian Christians, though apocryphal, that “jihadists”
believe that when they die in the course of executing their sacred obligation
in a Jihad will be made comfortable in heaven and will be given seven virgins
as wives.
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Power
and suppress opposition to the government19. The regime de la
terreur (Reign of Terror) was intended to promote democracy and popular rule by
ridding the revolution of its enemies and thereby purifying it. However, the
oppression and violent excesses of the terror transformed it into a feared
instrument of the state (Hoffman, 1998).
From that time on terrorism has had
a decidedly negative connotation. Meanwhile, the word, did not gain wider
popularity until the early 20th century when it was adopted by a
group of Russian revolutionaries during the soviet revolution in 1917 to
describe their violent struggle against tsarist rule. Thus, Lenin and Stalin,
evolved government sponsored terrorism as a useful tool to maintain government
control. These two important persons intimidate and frighten the entire
society. According to them, both terror and fear were veritable instruments for
governmental operations (Danlibo, 2009).
In Abimbola’s view20,
during the 1920s and 1930s, terrorism became associated more with the
repressive practices employed by distortional states than with the violence of
non-state groups like the anarchists. The wanton violence and intimidation
inflicted by the Nazi, [8]fascist,
and totalitarian regimes that respectively came to power in Germany,
Italy, and soviet union. The repressive
means these governments employed against their citizens involved beatings,
unlawful detentions, torture, so-called death squads (often consisting of
off-duty or plan clothes security or police officers), and other forms of
intimidation such practices by governments against their own citizens continue
today.
Recent history records the use of
such measures by the military dictatorships that took power in Argentina, Chile,
and Greece during the 1970s. But these state-sanctioned acts of violence are
more generally termed terror to distinguish them from violence committed by non-state
entities.
It is however noteworthy that modern
terrorism especially right from the late 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s and up till
the 1990s has taken different trends and dimensions21.
Having known the history of terrorism globally, we
shall be coming to the history of terrorism in Nigeria.
1 Adeyemi,
Bukola, Oyeniyi Terrorism in Nigeria Groups, Activities, and politics, A. B.
Oyeniyi vol. 1, vol1 Quertery 2010
2 Founder and executive director, international policy
institute for counter-terrorism (ICT)
3 Ibid pg 5
4 Ibid pg 6
8 Ibid pg 17
9 Ibid Pg 3
10 David Rapprot, “Fear and Trembling”. Terrorism in
three Religious Traditions, American Political Sceince Review, Vol. 78, No.3
(September 1984) pp. 658-677
11 Ibid pg 665
12 Ibid pg
666
13 Stephen F. D. “Religious Suicide in Islamic Asia
Anti-colonial terrorism in India,
Indonesia, and the Philippines”,
Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, vol. March 1988) pp. 37-59
14 Adeyemi,
B. O., “Terrorism in Nigeria,
groups, activities, and polices”, Int’l Journal of Politics and good governance,
vol.1, No.1.1 Quarter 2010
15 Abimbola
J. O. (et al) “Domestic Terrorism and Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, issues
and trends A historical Discourses” Journal of Arts and cotemporary society,
vol.4 September 2012, pg. 12
16 Ibid pg 12
17 Ibid 12
18 Ibia 12
19 Ibid 13
20 Ibid 13