A SOCIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION OF THE DETERMINANT FACTORS AND THE EFFECTS
Ojo
Matthias Olufemi Dada Department Of Sociology, Crawford University of the
Apostolic Faith Mission, Igbesa, Nigeria ABSTRACT An increase in the number of
the children hawkers in Nigeria has become worrisome. With selected respondents
in a densely populated area of Lagos State (n = 100), this paper investigates
the problem of street hawking among the Nigerian children. Agege Local
Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria, was purposely sampled and the
respondents who participated in the study were conveniently sampled from the
study area.
Simple percentages and chi-square were the methods of data analysis
employed in this study. The study discovered that the level of awareness of the
dangers inherent in child hawking among the affected children was low. The
investigation of the study revealed that parents’ levels of education, parents’
occupations and the sizes of the family were significantly related to the
problem of child hawkers in the study area. The study recommends intensified
enlightenment programmes on the problem of child hawkers, positive and genuine
commitment by the government, mass, free and compulsory education, and a
serious fight against poverty through poverty alleviation and eradication
programmes by the government. The implications of doing these were discussed.
Keywords: Agege, child labour, children, hawking, parents and street.
INTRODUCTION
In order to understand the lives of children who live and work on
the street, we need to find out about the lives and roles of children in any
culture. There are certain African realities that affect children on the
continent whatever their cultural context, geographical situation or socio-
economic status. In the first place, children and young people from more than
half the population of most African countries, has implications for the
distribution of resources and for policy. Closely related to this demographic
factor are the observations that significant deficits exist in the schooling
systems of most countries and that there is a general lack of provision of
child care for working mothers in urban settings, both of which are likely to
be significant contributory causes of streetism. International Journal of Asian
Social Science journal homepage:
http://www.aessweb.com/journal-detail.php?id=5007
Children
in the urban areas are quickly caught up in the daily struggle for survival and
material gain (Ebigbo, 1989). A situation analysis of child abuse and neglect
in Nigeria, undertaken through the medium of news papers, found that child
abandonment, sexual abuse, child neglect, vagrancy, kidnapping and hawking were
the most reported forms of child abuse and neglect (Ebigbo, 1989).
Child
abuse is seen as a feature of other social phenomena or situations, rather than
as phenomenon in its own right. Thus, sexual abuse and exploitation, for
example, do not constitute a single category but are mentioned in this account
relating it with child labour. There is no generally accepted definition for
the term „child abuse‟, but it simply refers to the ill – treatment of a child
by his parent or any other adult. Edu and Edu (1999) describe child abuse as a
willful maltreatment of a child. Such maltreatment, according to them can
include acts of commission (abuse) and omission (neglect).
One
of the basic principles of the International Convention on the Rights of the
Child is that every child must be protected against all forms of exploitation,
indecent or degrading treatment, including child labour, abduction and sale (UNICEF.,
2000). According to the UNICEF, exploiting the labour of a child means
employing a person below the age of 15 years and paying him/her less than the
minimum standard wage. Trafficked children are made to works as hawkers and
petty traders, beggars, car washers, bus conductors, farm hands or cattle
rearers (UNICEF, 1997). The use of children as hawkers, beggars and bus
conductors is widespread in the urban areas. Other worst forms of child labour
include street hawking, drug peddling, herding of livestock, children used by
the physically challenged in begging along busy streets and sneaking (this is a
method whereby armed robbers and thieves engaged young children to pass through
small inlets into their areas of operation), child trafficking, child prostitution,
slavery practices, particularly in the fishing industry, child domestic
servitude, exploitation of children in mines and customary servitude.
Factors
promoting child labour includes poverty, exploitation by the adults and
children‟s own choices as a result of ignorance, among other things. The
problem of child labour is pervasive in nature. The Western Societies see child
labourers as people suffering from some psychological and pathological
problems, while in the African Society; it is regarded as a natural procedure
in child rearing process. Child labour has been considered a social problem in
the African context and Nigeria in particular (UNICEF, 1997).
(Ebigbo
and Abaga, 1990) opined that in Nigeria, the rate of child abuse and child
hawking has assumed a worrisome and alarming proportion. He further noted that
in Ibadan, Ondo and Ogun metropolis, it is a daily occurrence to see children
below 14 years, hawking wares and other products along the roadsides. Hence,
this study is pertinent to the problem. We discussed the determinant factors of
street hawking; the effects generated by the problem of street hawking, and
recommended some solutions to arrest the problem.
Statement
of the Problem Although, child hawking, can contribute to the economic growth
and development, however, the risks that are attached supersede the economic
positive aspect of it. Risks like motor accident, rape, kidnapping, extortion,
sexual molestation and the child involvement in robbery and other anti-social
behaviours are too great to ignore. Child hawking exposes the child to a lot of
hazards like sexual defilement, sexual assaults, neglects and threat of
punishment for speaking out as exemplified above. The consequences of these
acts usually result in an unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases,
psychological problems and a gradual withdrawal from a healthy relationship
with the opposite gender (UNICEF, 2000). Oloko (1989) noted that street hawking
exposes the male and female child to dangers posed by fraudsters and actual
murderers because of their vulnerability at odd hawking hours. They are usually
under personal jeopardy, harsh and hazardous conditions such as becoming an
easy target to occult predators (ritual killers). Although, various efforts
were made by federal government and non-governmental organizations to stem the
trend, such as the creation of children’s games village, the passage of the
Child‟s Rights Bill in 2005 by the National Assembly and the subsequent passage
by some states, not much has been achieved as the trend continues.
Objectives of This
Study
Although, the general objective of this study
is to examine the socio-economic determinant factors of street hawking, and the
effects on the children in Agege area of Lagos State, Nigeria, the under listed
were the specific objectives of our study:
1. To investigate the remote and immediate causes of
child hawking.
2. To assess the implication of child hawking.
3. To identify measures that can be taken to curb
child hawking.
Research
Questions
The
followings were the interrogative statements we posed from the objectives of
our study. They were research questions that this study answered (George, 2007)
1. What were the remote and immediate causes of
child hawking?
2. What were the implications posed by child
hawking?
3. What were the identifiable measures that can be
implemented to curb child hawking?
Research
Hypotheses
We
equally put forward some intelligent guesses, conjectural propositions or
assumptions known as hypotheses (George, 2007). The followings were the
hypotheses tested in this research work:
(1) There is a
significant relationship between parent‟s (s) or guardian‟s level of education
and street hawking among children.
(2) There is a
significant relationship between parents‟ (s)or guardians‟ occupational level
and street hawking among children
(3) There is a
significant relationship between family size and street hawking among children.
Scope of our
Study
Child
hawking is a general social problem in Nigeria. It cuts across many states in
Nigeria. However, this study covered only Lagos State. Under Lagos State, only
Agege Local Government Area was covered and few respondents were selected.
Moreover, our study only covered street hawking as a sub set of child labour.
Limitation of our Study Our study was limited by time. Fund was another
limitating problem. The study was self sponsored by the researcher. Moreover,
other educational resources and materials also posed limitation to the study.
Justification of the Study This work was justifiable because of the significant
importance that will be derived. The work is expected to provide further
information on the subject matter relating to socio-economic factors promoting
child hawking among the residents of Agege. The work identified those
socio-economic determinant factors. The study is expected to enable government,
non-government organizations and related stake-holders to formulate policies on
how to abolish street hawking. The work will serve as an instrument of
enlightenment to parents about the need to protect the future of their
children. The study will add to the existing knowledge in the fields of academics
and increase the volume of literature on the child labour in Nigeria.
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Nigeria
is the largest black African country. According to the recent census, a
population of 150 million people was recorded. It is said that every one out of
four Africans is a Nigerian. There are several ethnic groups, but three major
tribes make up the majority of the people: the Igbo in the East, the Yoruba in
the West and the Hausa in the North. Nigeria plays a leading role in
determining the future of Africa, both at the global and regional levels.
Although endowed with rich natural resources and extensive human resources,
Nigeria has not developed the necessary technological, industrial, managerial
and political know-how to pull its resources together in a sound economy to
take care of basic needs of its population. As a result, poverty and hard
living conditions are prevalent, affecting children in particular. The country
faces social upheaval, cultural conflict, and slow industrialization and impact
attempts at westernization.
According
to (Ebigbo, 1989), children in urban areas are quickly caught up in the daily
struggle for survival and material gain. In the Eastern and Western parts of
Nigeria, children may attend schools in the morning or afternoon and hawk goods
outside of school hours, though there are some children who trade on the
streets the whole day. Their income helps their family or house madams
financially or pays for their school fees. Although, most Nigerian children
must return home at the end of the day, a growing number including girls,
subsist on the streets (Ebigbo and Isuora, 1985; Oloko, 1989).
Hawking
by boys and girls is widespread, and parents clearly recognize that the practice
holds dangers for children. According to (Nzewi 1988), a systematic survey of
cases of sexual abuse of children in three major towns in Nigeria indicated
that 60% involved girls below the age of 12 years. Abuse occurred on three
levels: exposure to overt genital seduction, exposure to genital stimulation,
and witnessing adults in the act of sex. It was discovered that hawking is the
major factor which contributed to these three levels of abuse.
Men
may lure young female hawkers by buying up all their wares and giving them
money in addition to this or they may pay them to run errands. These girls may
be shown pornographic pictures in magazines or pornographic Video films (Ebigbo
and Abaga, 1990). Since the girls have been driven through poverty from homes,
to sell goods from door to door, their parents are happy to receive money which
may in certain instances be vital to the family survival (Ebigbo, 1988). The
girls learn to beautify themselves daily to draw interest and begin to look
forward to hawking. Parents are unable to intervene since the girls keep their
liaisons secret because of societal taboos against sex discussion (Obiako,
1986). Causes of Street Hawing The dramatic increase in child labour and street
trading in Nigeria can be attributed to several factors. The rapid population
growth of many less developed countries, high rates of unemployment, inflation,
low wages and deplorable working conditions have contributed to incidents of
street trading and child labour as children attempt to help and support their
families.
The
major cause of child abuse is economic. This is associated with poverty. This
hawking of wares and food product on the roads and motor parks is an economic
means of making ends meet, either sponsored by parents or the child personal
interest (Ebgbo, 2003). Cultural beliefs in treating the child are also another
cause of child abuse as children are seen more as mere properties of their
parents (Fawole et al., 2003). Another cause is violence against the child
caused by emotion on the part of parent or guardian and ignorance. Several
reasons have been put forward as predisposing factors to child street hawking.
These factors include poverty, high cost of living, lack of sponsorship, poor
school performance, single parenthood, large family size, peer group pressure,
poor home conditions, lack of parental care, parents‟ unemployment, parental
pressure, poor scholastic achievements (Fawole et al., 2003). Under employment
in Nigeria has made provision of social welfare services like education,
healthcare, water supply and energy not only inadequate, but expensive, thereby
promoting parents to resort to child labour and exploitation. Hence, some
Nigerian parents and guardians abuse their children through street hawking in
order to support family income and this hawking is encouraged because it is
convenient for those who purchase their needs while in traffic, motor parks,
offices and business centres (Oloko, 1989).
Appel
(2009) has identified structural inequalities as the cause of child hawking,
while Nwabueze (1992) sees poverty and inequality as the major causes of street
hawking and child labour. Okojie (1987) postulates the causes to be an adverse
economic environment, underemployment, massive retrenchment, unemployment and a
poor quality of life. Ebgbo ( 2003) contended that while poverty is often
postulated as the principal cause of forcing children into labour, lack of
social services at home, lack of good housing, inadequate food and health care
service, have been known to compel parents to send their children into street
hawking and child labour. The least privileged children, including children
without families and/or without homes are the most vulnerable to these social
ill. The economic constraints also force people to look for wealth at all cost
to the detriment of their children.
In
the similar argument, Crosson (2008), argued that there is link between parents
with marginal incomes and the imperative to push children into work so as to
supplement family income. This view, supported by Bass (2004), and Binder and
Sorgin (1999), who hold that children of poor families have to help generate
family incomes and compensate for economic discrepancies in the society. In
such situations, poverty breeds poverty. A poor family has a high probability
of staying poor since low family incomes carry with them high risks of illness,
limitations on mobility, and limited access to education. Thus, the legacy of
poverty is passed from parents to children (UNICEF, 1997). Child labour is also
one of the many manifestations of poverty in 70% of households in Nigeria,
providing an essential means of income for poor families. International Labour
Organization (2006) identified eight causative factors of child labour in
Nigeria. These are: cultural influences, economic problems, national debt, law,
education, and unemployment, inability to cope with the needs of the family
members, street life and single parent‟s families. Oruwari (1996), Adudu (1987)
and Okojie (1987) identified five factors- housing, illiteracy, possession of
consumerism, employment/underemployment, low incomes and inability to cope with
the needs of members of their households, as indicators of the extent of poverty
among women.
Child
labour and street hawking can be attributed to urbanization and modernization.
Hoyano and Keenan (2007) opined that people who migrate from rural areas to
urban areas in search of better prospects are often ill prepared for urban life
and therefore forced to either use their children or other children to enhance
their economic situation. Child labour and street hawking can also be linked to
child rearing norms and the attribute of parents, where, for the purpose of
socialization, children are required to carry out assigned domestic chores and
economic activities (Aderinto, 2000). Child labour and street hawking has also
been traced to the rise of capitalism as a system of production, where labour
becomes a commodity to be bought and sold. Child labour was, therefore,
encouraged by capitalism (Ake, 1981). The structure and functions of families
play central role in shaping the behaviour and skills of children. Children
must be raised to be responsible members of society with appropriate values,
beliefs and training. The ability of the family to function effectively is a
factor in child development. Child labour is a sign of family dislocation and
disorganization. As a result of child labour, the welfare of the children is
adversely affected, as they are exposed to other social ills and dangers. They
are forced to live in the adult world away from their families.
Implications of
Child Labour and Street Hawking
There
was a belief that street hawking prepares the children for adult roles, this
belief does not take cognizance of the fact that the juvenile hawkers on the
street are exposed to numerous hazards ranging from physical violence to loss
of wares, risk of accident, robbery, kidnapping and even murder for ritual
purposes. They are exposed to vagaries of weather (extremes of cold or heat),
to insects and reptiles bites, to hunger and deprivation. The most troubling,
perhaps, is the fact that some are sexually exploited and forced into
prostitution with the risk of unwanted pregnancies and contracting sexually
transmitted infections (including HIV). Kathleen (1988) argued that child
labour has physical consequences on the children. These range from
malnourishment, disease, musculoskeletal disorders from heavy labour, physical
and sexual abuse. (Korbin, 1983) and (Malinosky and Hansan, 1993) opined that
child labour can result into bodily injuries to the children and expose them to
toxic agents in the process. (Basu and Van, 1998) protested that socially,
children can experience negative effects on their educational development and
performance. Illiteracy, low school attendance, and low enrolment have
developmental and performance implication and have been attributed to children‟s
economic participation.
Onuzulike
(2007) grouped the consequences of street hawking by children into three,
namely: Physical, Psychological and Social. Physical consequences include:
accidents, spread of communicable diseases, food poisoning and traffic
congestion. Psychological consequences of child street hawking include: stress,
fatigue, depression, anger and resultant ills. Social implications include:
unwanted pregnancies, prostitution, smoking, robbery, truancy and poor academic
performance among others.
Street
hawking does not endanger only the lives of the hawkers, but also the food
hawked and the consumer society at large. Contamination can occur from
indiscriminate exposure of food items to air, dust, flies and dirt. (Onuzulike,
2007). Child street hawkers spend most of their time outside the home in a bid
to sell their wares. They do not only hawk during the early mornings but at
night and during harsh weather. Some of the hawkers are welcomed home with
battering by their parents or caretakers when they could not make profit from
their wares or when they could not finish selling their wares. Above all,
hawking affects academic performance of the children. Most of the hawkers who
hawk in the morning hours before going to school are perpetual latecomers to
school. They lack concentration in class work due to fatigue and stress. These
result to poor academic performance, delinquency and truant behaviour. They
tend to show behavioural problems, low self – esteem withdrawal syndrome,
oppositional behaviour and learning difficulties (Ebigbo, 1993).
Children
hawkers may end up becoming „‟street children or children of the street” when
they run away from parental or guardian abuse, leaving them to eke out a living
on their own (Finkelman, 1995). The physical and health consequences of
children participating in the sales and service sector in Latin America, Asia
and Africa include diseases (respiratory problems) injuries, rape and molestation,
mal nourishment, extortion of income, police harassment and participation in
harmful or delinquent activities. Such children may face robbery, inadequate
sleep due to fatigue and long hours on the job and confinement in juvenile
homes (Ross, 1996).
Children
hawkers also encounter problems related to their psychological well – being.
These include stigmatization by the press and public, feelings of
disheartenment, stress and irritability, personality disorders, anti – social
behaviours, alienation, and isolation from their family (Amin, 1994) . There
are negative effects on education and overall human capital formation (Murphy
et al., 1991). Children hawkers tend to keep bad company and are negatively
pressured to engage in delinquent behaviors (Hughes, 2009). The common trend
emerging from the synthesis of literature is that street hawking has
detrimental effects for children‟s health, social and educational well – being.
Legal Framework against Child Abuse Under the Nigerian Law, a person can be classified
into four folds namely: an infant (age 1-6years),a child (age 7-13year), a
young person (14-17years) and an adult (18year and above). However, the child
Rights Act 2003 classified any person who is below the age of 18 years as a
child. In the same vein, the Convention on the Rights of the child (CRC)
defines a child „as any human being who is below the age of 18, years except
the law of the child‟s country states otherwise‟. For the purpose of this work,
the child is referred to as any human being below the age of 18 years.
It
is important to note that Labour Act, Criminal Code, Penal Code, the
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigerian Constitution. (1999), Child
Right Act (2003) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) shall be
our guide under this legal framework. According to the convention on the right
of the child (CRC) to which Nigeria is a signatory, a child is defined as „a
human being below the age of 18 years, except the law of the child‟s country
stated otherwise‟. Some of the highlights of the convention are as follows:
· Every child has the right to his/her life and the
development of body and mind.
· Government of member nations must ensure that child
suffers no discrimination.
· Children shall not be forced to leave or be
separated from their parents unless by the order of the court of law.
· The upkeep and upbringing of the child is the
responsibility of the parents but the states shall assist and support the
parents.
· States shall protect children from all forms of sexual
abuse, neglect or exploitation.
· A sentence of death shall not be passed on any child
below the age of 18 years.
· Children shall be free to enjoy their culture,
religion and language and shall be given the opportunity for recreational
activities.
· The rights presented in the convention should be
widely made known to both adults and children. Government of member States
shall carry the responsibility of educating their citizens on the provisions of
the convention.
The
thrust of these rights is to assure that every child born into world is
accorded in his or her childhood and youth, the fullest opportunities for
self-realization, by being entitled to opportunities and facilities which
guarantee healthy and normal development in all spheres of human life. Labour
Rights of a Child The law governing the rights of a child in labour issues in
Nigeria is the Labour Act. Section 59 (b) of the Act provides that no young
person shall be employed in any work which is injurious to his health or which
is dangerous or immoral. The Act further provides that no child under the Age
of 16 years shall be employed in circumstances in which it is not reasonably
possible for him to return each day to the place of residence of his parents or
guardians. The section forbids a child less than 16 years from working
underground or on machines. It further forbids young persons from working for a
longer period than four hours in one day. It places additional restrictions on
the employment of a child or young person on a ship or any vessel and it
prohibits absolutely, the night employment of young persons. From the above,
one can see that the Labur Act does not prohibit Child Labour, rather it only
places restrictions on where, when and how Child‟s Labour may be employed.
Rights of a Child under the Criminal Law and Penal Law Our guiding laws are the
criminal code applicable to the southern part of Nigeria and the penal code
applicable to the Northern part of Nigeria. Section 300-302 of the criminal
code becomes imperative for our consideration. Section 300 in particular states
inter-alia: „It is the duty of every person having charge of another who is
unable, by reason of age, to withdraw such charge and who is unable to provide
himself with the necessities of life, whether the charge is undertaken under a
contractor or is imposed by law which arises by reason of any act, whether
lawful or unlawful, of the person who has such charge to provide for the other
person the necessaries of life, and he is held to have caused any consequences
which result to the life or health of the other person by reason of any
omission to perform that duty‟. This section, like sections 301 and 302 of the
criminal code criminalizes the omission or failure to provide necessities of
life to a child and imposes liability for any consequence which may arise from
such omission or failure.
Section 301 provides for
the study of every person who as head of family, has charge of a child under
the age of 14 years, being a member of his household,to provide the necessaries
of life for such a child and is held to have caused the consequences which
result to that child whether or not the child is helpless. These sections are
meant to ensure that a young child in the charge of another is properly cared
for. Penal code (section 238) of the code criminalizes cruelty to children. It
states that “any person having the charge or care of a child under the age of
15 years or being in a position of authority over him, who willfully ill-treats
such a child in a way as to cause injury to the child‟s health is guilty of an
offence punishable with imprisonment of up to two years or with fine or both”.
Section 275 of the penal code punishes procreation of a girl under the age of
18 for immoral purposes. Likewise, section278 of the same penal code punishes
the buying and selling of any person under the age of 18 years for immoral
purposes. While section 284 of the penal code punishes any person who has
sexual intercourse with a girl under 14 years with or without her consent. In a
related version, sections 223-225 of the criminal code sanction whoever trades
in prostitution, facilitate the transport of human beings within or outside
Nigeria for commercial sexual exploitation and makes profit from related
activities. In addition, no sentence of death can be pronounced on a child or a
young offender who is under 17 years old at the time of the commission of the
offence. As such children and young persons are to be tried in separate courts.
These are Juvenile courts. The Nigeria 1999 Constitution and the Rights of a
Child The 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria does not
specifically distinguish between the applicability of its provisions relating
to children and adults. But it enumerates under its chapter IV certain rights
tagged Fundamental Human Rights which are inalienable rights of all the
citizens of the country, children and young person‟s inclusive. These are
rights to personal liberty, human dignity and freedom from slavery and torture,
freedoms of thought, opinion, conscience and religion, expression, association
and peaceful assembly, movement, fair hearing in both civil and criminal cases,
freedom from discrimination on ground of sex, race or ethnicity, religion,
political persuasion e.t.c. The rights enumerated above are recognized and
confirmed by both the African Charter on Human and People‟s Rights and the
United Nations Bill of Rights on Civil Rights and Liberties.
In
addition to the above, there are fundamental objectives and directive
principles of state policy set out in chapter D section 13-24 of the
constitution. Section 17 (3f) in particular provides‟ “the state shall direct
its policy towards ensuring that – children, young persons and aged are
protected against any exploitation whatsoever against moral and material
neglect. This specifically addresses the protection of children against
exploitation in form of Child Labour in all forms. (Nigerian Constitution.,
1999).
Rights
of A Child Under The Child’s Right Act Several rights of Nigerian child are
listed under the Child‟s Right Act, 2003 but those that are directly related to
our research are:
(1) Right to
Dignity: section 11 of the Act provides that every child is entitled to respect
for the dignity of his person and accordingly, no child shall, among other
things, be held in slavery or servitude. Every child has the right to parental
care and protection, and no child shall be separated from his parents against
the wish of the child.
(2) Right to
Education: section 15 states that „every child has the right to free,
compulsory and universal Basic Education at least up to Junior Secondary
Education.
(3) Right not to
be exposed to Narcotic Drug.
(4) Protection
against abduction: No person shall remove or take a child out of lawful
custody.
(5) Protection
against Child Labour: Section 26 of the Act States that „no child shall be
subjected to any forced or exploitative labour or employed to work in any
capacity except work of domestic character.
(6) Protection
against Buying, Selling, Begging and Prostitution. Section 38 outlaws buying,
selling, hiring or dealing in a child. A child must not be used for the purpose
of begging for alms, hawking of foods, guiding beggars, prostitution, domestic
or sexual labour or any unlawful or immoral purpose or slavery or trafficking
or debt bondage.
(7) Protection
against Sexual Abuses: section 29 provides that no person shall have sexual
intercourse with a child. Such offence is rape and is liable on conviction to
imprisonment for life.
(8) However, the
most relevant parts of the Act to our study are: Protection against Child Labour,
buying, selling, begging and prostitution. These two parts address the topic
under this research.
The
legal frameworks examined so far, clearly show that, children must be protected
and taken care of by all means by the parents and by the government of every
nation. They are set of people that are helpless and therefore, must be helped
by all available means.
METHODOLOGY
APPLIED
We
were concerned with the nature, validity and quality of the data as well as the
logic and rationale underlying the data that is put into this sociological
research. Hence, this section explains the methodology involved in this study.
Research Design
Our
population of Study was very large (all the children Hawkers in Agege Local
Government). It was very impossible for us to study every unit of this huge
population. We, therefore, resulted into survey design which involves the
collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses
to questions (Schutt, 2004)
Study Area
Our
study area was Agege local government Area. The local government is one of the
local governments under Ikeja division of the state and one of the metropolitan
areas of the state. It was chosen because it is essentially an urban area and
one of the densely populated areas in Lagos State. Agege local government
population was put to be 1,033,064 (male 564,239 and female 468, 825) (Idowu et
al., 2011). Hence, its density has made it a potential area for our study. Study
Population There were hundreds of children engaging in street hawking in Agege
local government area, who ought to be our study population. However, it was
not possible for us to contact all of them in the process of obtaining data for
this study. Hence, one hundred (100) of these children were eventually sampled
out of all the children hawkers in this study area. Therefore, our actual or
real population of study was one hundred (100) children hawkers.
Designs and
Sampling Size
The
sampling designs were in multi-stage. Our study site was purposely or
judgmentally sampled. We used judgment in selecting the area as a case study
with specific purpose (area with children hawkers) in mind (Neuman, 2003). It
was based on our judgment that the area will facilitate our investigation
(Adler and Clark, 1999). Next, we used the convenience sampling also known as
haphazard or accidental to select the one hundred children hawkers that
participated in our survey. They were children that were readily accessible to
us (Adler and (lark, 1999) and were very cheap and quick for us to implement
(Neuman, 2003). As stated earlier on, our sample size was one hundred children
hawkers that were conveniently selected from all the children hawkers at Agege
suburb area of Lagos State. Data Collection Instrument and Procedure Our
technique of data collection was through quantitative approach. Questionnaire
was the data collection instrument we employed. The questionnaire contained
both open-ended and closed questions and were given through personal hand
delivery method. Hence, it was self administered questionnaire. We bore it in
mind that some of our respondents may not be able to fill the questionnaire
legibly and accurately, hence, we asked them the questions in the questionnaire
and assisted them by transcribing their responses into the questionnaire.
However, some of them were able to do the filling by themselves with little or
no hitch. We tried to explain some areas of the questionnaire to them which
they did not perfectly understand.
METHOD OF DATA
ANALYSIS
We
processed the data we obtained in the field using statistical package for
social sciences (SPSS) computer software. The data were analyzed using
frequency and percentage method. We used cross tabulation method in the process
of testing our hypotheses which we used Chi-Square method to test. The formula
is stated below:
Chi-Square
Formula:
Where
X2 = Chi-Square
e
= summation
O1
= observed frequency
e1
= expected frequency
Rule:
Accept H1, (alternative hypothesis) when X2 calculated is greater than X2
tabulated.
Otherwise,
accept HO (null hypothesis).
Ethical Issues
As
social researchers who are bound to protect the interest of the respondents, we
took into cognizance the issues in research ethics. We sought the consents of
our respondents before we commence the research. We told them what the research
was all about and the purpose of conducting it. All our respondents
participated through their free-wills. We equally protected our respondents
from being identified. The anonymity was followed duly. The questionnaire did
not bear any means that will identify any of our respondents. The responses
which formed our data eventually were analyzed and interpreted in aggregate
without any link to a specific respondent. Moreover, the information was kept
confidential and was used purposely for this research work and its publication.
Data
Presentations, Analyses, Interpretation and Discussion of the Findings
Under
this section, we present, analyze, interpret and discuss our findings from the
field survey.
Frequency,
percentage and chi-square were used for data presentation and analyses. Frequencies and
Percentages were input into tables.
Table-1.
Table,
Showing the Sex, Age Distribution and Family Types of the Respondents.
Variable
Frequency Percentage
Sex
Male
48 48
Female
52 52
Total
100 100
Age Distribution
6-8
years 2 2
9-11
years 13 13
12-14
years 66 66
15-18
years 19 19
Total 100 100
Family Type
Monogamy
66 66
Polygamy
34 34
Total 100 1 00
Source: Field survey,
2012 A cursory look at the table above shows that for sex distribution, 48% of
our respondents were male, while 52% of them were female. For the age
distributions, 2% were between 6years and 8years, 13% were between 9years and
11 years, 66% were between 12 years and 14 years and 19% were between 15 years
and 18years. For the sex distribution, we had more female than male, among the
children hawkers. This may be explained culturally. Among the Yoruba natives,
buying and selling are the enterprise of female population while men engage in
other professional works like farming, hunting, black smithing e.t.c. even the
products from their professional works are sold by their wives in the market.
Females are more skillful in buying and selling (hawking included) than male.
For the age distributions, only 15% of our respondents were between 6years and
11 years. The highest percentage (66%) was between 12 years and 14 years. This
age bracket was the highest because they were within the age when development
is really coming up. At the age, life adventure is usually pronounced. Hawking
is considered as one of the life adventures for these children. However, only
19% were between 15 years and 18 years. This is a suggestion that the numbers
of the children hawkers will drop as they grow older. This may be as a result
of their understanding of the dangers in hawking, the effect on their
self-esteem, the demands from higher educational level and consciousness of
their dignities among other factors. Our data show that 66% of our respondents
came from monogamous families while 34% came from polygamous families. Although
Yoruba culture supports polygamy, however, Western Culture has influenced this
type of marriage system. Monogamy is being widely adopted now among the Yoruba
natives. Moreover, the present economic hardship in the country has made many
of them to restrict their marriage to monogamy because with polygamy there is
tendency of having large number of children and wives to cater for.
Table-2.
Table, Showing the Responses of the Respondents on their Parents.
S/N
Question
Frequency Percentage
25
75 100
25
75 100
20
80 100
20
80 100
Are
your parents separated /divorced? Yes No Total
Are
any of your parents dead? Yes No Total
If
yes, who? Mother Father Both Total
4
15 1 20
20
75 5 20
Are
you living with any of your parents? Yes No
78
22
78
2
Total
100
100
If
no, who are you living with? Grandparent Aunt Uncle Brother Sister Total
6
8 3 4 1 22
27.27
36.36 13.64 18.18 4.55 100
Source: field survey,
2012 A quick glance at the above table shows that 25% of our respondents‟ parents
were either separated or divorced. Hence 25% of them were under single
parenthood. The experience shows that in most of the cases of separation or
divorce, the children usually live with the mothers as the haven of their
protection, believing that mothers have compassion for their children than the
fathers do. However, 75% were living with both parents. We asked our
respondents to say if any of their two parents was dead. 2% confirmed that
either or both of their parents were dead. 80% of them still have both parents
alive. Recognizing the emotional feelings that may possibly come up from this
question, we euphemized the question to prevent us from affecting the emotional
feelings of our respondents. Our data show that 4 respondents 20% of those that
have lost their parents) had no mother. 15 respondents (75% of those that have
lost their parents) had no father, while 1 respondent (5% of those that have
lost their parents) had lost both parents. The loss of one or both parents can
increase the economic challenges of the family. Death of a parent will
definitely increase the burden of the living parent in making provisions for
the family members. The situation will be more severe if the deceased parent
happened to be the principal bread winner of the family. Furthermore, 78% of
our respondents were living with either or both parents. However, 22% of the
respondents were not living with their parents. For those that were not living
with their parents, we asked them to say whom they were living with. 27.27% of
those that were not living with their parents were living with their
grandparents (6 of them), 36.36% (18 of them) were living with their aunts,
13.64% (3 of them) were living their uncles, 18.18% (4 of them) were living
with their brothers, while 4.55% (1 of them) was living with a sister. Although
Yoruba culture preaches total responsibility of the parents over their
children, poverty, death or some other unpleasant conditions may cause the
parents entrusting their children with the care of capable members of the
extended family. This is called „‟fomoleboo” in Yoruba language, that is
“entrusting the feeding of one‟s children with some who is economically
capable”. This act involves that such children be living with that capable
person, who would not only provide for feeding but also clothing, education and
other necessities of life for those children. The children in return must be
ready to work and assist such guardians, especially in area of income
generation. Hence, child hawking may possibly be the area of such income
generation.
Table-3.
Table, Showing the Responses Pertaining to Hawking.
S/N
Question
Frequency
Percentage
1
Is
any other member of your family involved in hawking? Yes No total
48
52 100
48
52 100
2
Do
you enjoy hawking? Yes No total
47
53 100
47
53 100
3
Are
you aware of the dangers in hawking? Yes No Total
54
46 100
54
46 100
4.
Are
you aware of government’s law against hawking? Yes No Total
53
47 100
53
47 100
5.
Which
of these dangers have you majorly encountered? Unfavorable weather Kidnapping
Rape none Total
3
5 16 2 74 100
3
5 16 2 74 100
6.
Do
you think street hawking has negative effects on the society? Yes No TOTAL
28
72 100
28
72 100
We
asked our respondents some question related to hawking in the streets. The
table above shows their responses to the questions. We asked them to signify if
any other family members were equally involved in hawking. 48% admitted that
other members of the family were equally involved in street hawking, while 52%
said no other members of the family were involved. The involvement of the other
members of the family in street hawking may be a factor which encouraged some
of these children hawkers. For those children that were the only hawkers in the
family, it may possibly be that other siblings were too young to undergo this
dangerous life adventure or perhaps, other factors may be responsible for this.
We asked our respondents to tell us whether they enjoy hawking or otherwise.
47% of them confirmed that street hawking was enjoyable to them, especially in
the company of other hawkers. Competition in sales of articles and wares by the
hawkers might serve as an interesting thing to the hawkers, especially for those
that were selling in and out of the traffic . However, 53% did not enjoy
hawking as a result of difficulties and challenges attached to it.
We
asked them to say from their opinions, whether hawking has dangers attached to
it or not. 54% of them were quite aware of the dangers inherent in hawking and
even mentioned some in process of participation in the survey. However, 46% of
them did not see any serious dangers in hawking activity. Lagos State has
recently passed a law to curb street hawking among the children. This is
especially of the period of school hours of the day. We went further to request
our respondents to signify if they were aware of this new law.53% of them were
quite aware of the law, While 47% of them were not aware. We draw the
conclusion that this new law was not given enough publicity, especially among
the Lagos children that are the principal concern and target of this law. We
expect the percentage of those that were aware to be higher than what we
obtained. We probed the dangers that some of our respondents might have
probably encountered in the past. 3% complained of harsh and unfriendly weather
during hawking. 5% were previously the victims of attempted kidnapping. 16%
have encountered dangers related to accident, while 2% have had experiences of
rape related cases in the past. Although, 74% have not had any dangerous
experience in the past, this does not mean that we should discard the dangers
inherent in hawking activities. Moreover, apart from the physical danger
highlighted, there are some hidden psychological and social dangers in hawking.
Hence, we conclude that child hawkers that were not physically endangered may
have been psychologically or socially endangered by hawking activity without
them knowing this. This ignorance was reflected in another question we asked
them. Our respondents were asked to say in their opinions whether street
hawking has negative impacts on the society or not. Only 28% confirmed that
street hawking has negative impacts on the society. 72% did not think that it
had negative effects on the society. We conclude that majority of these
children hawkers were not even aware that hawking has serious negative effects
on the society at large. Hence, a lot have to be done in sensitizing the
children hawkers about the dangers and the negative effects of hawking on them,
their families and the society at large. Hypotheses Testing The hypotheses, as
stated earlier on were tested using chi-square statistical method. Three
hypotheses were tested as follows: Hypothesis 1 H0: There is no significant
relationship between parent(s)/guardian‟s level of education and street hawking
among children. H1: There is a significant relationship between parent(s)/ guardian‟s
level of education and street hawking among children
Table-4. Table
Showing the Distribution of Parents‟ Levels of Education
Level
of Education
Observed
N
Expected
N
Residual
Primary
13
25.0
-12.0
Junior
Secondary School
26
25.0
1.0
Senior
Secondary School
48
25.0
23.0
No
formal education
13
25.0
-12.0
Total
100
Source: Field
Survey, 2012
Parents’
level of education
Chi-square
df Asym p. sig
32.720
3 000
Source: SPSS
Software
A
0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell
frequency is 25.0 Discussion: From the table above, the X2 calculated is 32.720
and X2 tabulated is 7.815 therefore, since the calculated value is greater than
the tabulated value, we agree with H1, which says there is a significant
relationship between parents‟ levels of education and street hawking among
children. Education can play a significant role in the lives of the citizens of
the country. Education gives a better chance of life achievement. An educated
person is better placed in the society than an illiterate. Educated people can
be easily employed, likewise the skillful people in the society. Hence, poverty
might not be their problem. When poverty is not felt by the family there is a
good possibility that children will not be involved in street hawking.
Moreover, we argue that the educated citizens are more enlightened than the
illiterates. They are expected to know the evils in street hawking and
conversant with the laws which prohibit the street hawking. Therefore, they may
not likely send their children to the streets to hawk goods and wares, whereas,
the illiterates might not be aware of the same, thereby taking the risks of
sending their children to the street to hawk goods and wares. Hypothesis 2 H0:
There is no significant relationship between parent(s)/guardian‟s occupational
level and street hawking. H1: There is a significant relationship between
parents (s)/guardian‟s occupational level and street hawking.
Table-5a.
Distribution by Parents‟ Occupations (fathers)
Fathers
occupation
Observed
N
Expected
N
Residual
Artisan
30
12.0
18.0
Driver
15
12.0
3
Trader
20
12.0
8
Security
10
12.0
-2
Farmer
6
12.0
-4
Police
1
12.0
-11
None
2
12.0
-10
Total
84
Source:
Field survey, 2012 Test statistics
Parent
occupation (fathers)
Chi-square(a)
df A symp. Sig
54.833
6 .000
International
Journal of Asian Social Science, 2013, 3(1):114-137
132
Source:
SPSS software A O cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
minimum expected cell is 12.0 Table-5b. Distribution by Parents Occupations
(mothers)
Occupations
Observed
N
Expected
N
Residual
Artisan
13
19.0
-6.0
Trader
Farmer
64
4
19.0
45.0
Food
vendor
13
19.0
15.0
Police
officer
1
19.0
-6.0
Total
100
95
-18.0
Source:
Field survey, 2012 Test statistics
Parents
occupation mothers
Chi-square(b)
Df Asymp.sig
139.263
4 .000
Source: SPSS soft ware.
A 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected
cell frequency is 19.0
Discussion:
From table (9) above, X2 calculated is 54.833, while x2 tabulated is 12.592.
Which means calculated value is greater than the tabulated value. Table (b)
show X2 calculated is 139.263 and X2 tabulated is 9.48773. Which means
calculated value is greater than the tabulated value. Hence, we conclude that
there is a significant relationship between parent(s) occupational level and
street hawking among children. The major cause of child abuse is majorly
economic. Poverty is a visible factor of this. Poverty, however, is a result of
unemployment. Unemployment has made the provision of basic family needs
inadequate and unaffordable, which makes parents resort to Child Labour and
exploitation to supplement the family income. We conclude that most of the
parents of our respondents were not fully and gainfully employed within the
economic sector of the country. Hence, this has led to sending their children
to streets to hawk goods, and wares. The same stand was taken by Okojie (1987),
Oruwari (1996), Crosson (2008), Bass (2004) and Binder and Sorgin (1999). All
were of the opinion that there is a link between parents‟ marginal incomes and
the importance of sending their children to work so as to supplement family
income. Hypothesis 3 H0: There is no significant relationship between family size
and street hawking among children. H1: There is a significant relationship
between family size and street hawking among children.
Table-6.
Distribution by Respondents‟ Family Size.
Family
Size
Observed
N
Expected
N
Residual
1-5
18
20.0
-2.0
6-10
61
20.0
41.0
International
Journal of Asian Social Science, 2013, 3(1):114-137
133
11-15
11
20.0
-9.0
16-20
7
20.0
-13.0
26-30
3
20.0
-17.0
Total
100
Source:
Field Survey, 2012 Test Statistics
Family
Size
Chi-square
df Asymp.sig
111.200
4 000
Source:
SPSS soft ware. A 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
minimum expected cell frequency is 20.0
Discussion: the calculated
chi-square (111.200) is greater than the tabulated chi-square (9.48773).
Therefore, we shall accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null
hypothesis. Hence, we conclude that there is a significant relationship between
family size and street hawking among children. Family size has to do with the
welfare of the family. The larger the size of the family relatively to the income
of that family, the more is the inadequacy of the welfare and care of such
family members. However, if the family size is smaller compared with the
income, the better will be the welfare and care for the members of such family.
Fawole et al. (2003) argued that large family size is one of the social factors
which contribute to street hawking among the children .We subscribe to this
assertion too, being duly confirmed by our hypothesis. SUMMARY OF THE FINDING
Our study reveals that parents or guardians have a great impact on the
possibility of children hawking in the Nigerian streets. Separation/divorce,
death or child fostering can disorganize the structure and functioning of the
family. When family structure is disorganized the family members are equally
disorganized. Under this circumstance, children usually suffer the consequences
more than the adults in the family. Many children have become hawkers because
the structures of their families have been disorganized socially and
economically. Hawking will eventually be considered as a way out from the life
difficulties. However, the adverse effects of hawking are more severe than the
previous predicaments of these children. We discovered that most children were
not aware of the dangers in street hawking. Nearly half of the respondents
confirmed that they enjoy hawking goods and wares. Moreover, they were not
conscious of any danger posed by hawking. In addition, many of them were not
aware of anti- child street hawking law enacted by the government of Lagos State.
All indicated that the level of the awareness of these children on the dangers
and law on hawking was very low.
Correlation
between education and child hawking shows that more still needed to be done in
the improvement of the educational statuses of the Nigerian citizens. Educated
citizens will be well informed and socially responsible citizens. They will
learn quickly the government policies, and implement the same as they affect
their families. The orientations of the educated citizens towards children will
be quite different from those of the illiterates. Employment was another factor
which plays a critical role in the problem of child hawking. Parents that were
gainfully employed and handsomely rewarded economically would hardly send their
children out to hawk on the street. We arrive at a conclusion that,
unemployment as a result of poor economy is a critical factor which induced and
supported the problem of child hawking in Nigeria. Finally we observe that
family size also plays a crucial role in child hawking. We affirm that the
larger the family size among the lower economic class parents in Nigeria, the
greater the poverty. Poverty, of course, is invariably related to child
hawking. Most of the children hawkers came from poor families. Of course, if
the adults in the families were rich enough to take care of these children,
there would not be a need for them hawking goods and wares in the streets.
CONCLUSION Street hawking is a negation of the International Convention on the
Rights of the Child. It is indeed, inhuman for anyone to engage a child in
money making venture. Such a child is denied basic education which is another
important right of every child. Moreover, children who engaged in hawking or
any hard labour may physically wear away before they actually reach the
productive age in the economy. Some sustained lifelong injuries which would
hinder them from contributing meaningfully to the development and growth of the
Nigerian economy. Many children had died as a resulting of hawking in traffics
through accidents. Nigeria as a responsible nation of the world is expected to
practically demonstrate her commitment to the global fight against child abuse
in all its ramifications.
RECOMMENDATION
We
suggest the following recommendations to address the problem of child hawking
in urban and rural areas in Nigeria:
Firstly,
enlightenment campaigns must be intensified .Serious efforts should be made
through seminars, workshops, conferences and other public talks to enlighten
the parents on the dangers of exposing their children to street hawking, street
begging as well as street wandering. Children must be incorporated as
beneficiaries of such programmes . They are the direct victims of the dangers
inherent in street hawking. Law enforcement agents need to be enlightened and
re-orientated with the view to making them abide by the laws, especially as its
affects children, and to put in place proper mechanisms to punish the erring
parents, and through which the children can seek redress whenever the need
arises. Secondly, we implore the government (state and federal), to show
positive action and serious commitment. At present, preventive measures against
child hawking (as well as other forms of child abuse) is very low, compared to
the alarming rate at which it is practiced. There is not enough legislation on
child street hawking and the few ones are insufficiently enforced. There are no
committed government policies being formulated to combat this social problem.
The effective policies formulated to eradicate child hawking (as well as other
forms of child abuse) are from individuals and non – governmental Organizations
(NGO) such as: Civil Liberty Organizations, human rights organizations and
religious bodies. Therefore, government should f be more committed in this area
Thirdly, we advocate for free and compulsory education for all citizens. In
addition, compulsory formal educational studies on human rights, Child Labour
and trafficking as well as other forms of child abuse should be incorporated in
the school curricula at all levels of education. Finally, we appeal to the
government, to intensify its efforts in poverty alleviation and eradication.
Since poverty and lack of education are the root cause of child hawking, child
hawking cannot be eliminated unless these problems are tackled. Government is
encouraged to create more job opportunities and reward handsomely, those that
are currently engaged in employment sector. These will incease the family
income of the Nigerians and give the opportunity to the parents to take care of
their children and other dependants, to make Nigeria a safe place to live for
our children.
REFERENCES
Aderinto,
A., 2000. Social correlates and coping measures of street children. Ado Ekiti:
Olubamese printers.
Adler,
E.S. and R. Clark, 1999. How it‟s done: An invitation to social research.
Canada: Wadworth publishing. . Canada: Wadworth publishing
Adudu,
F., 1987. Urban poverty and labour abuse in benin city. Benin Evans Brother
Publisher.
Amin,
A.A., 1994. The socio – economic impact of child labour in Nigeria. Akwa Ibom
state, uyo. .
Appel,
J.M., 2009. Mixed motives, mixed outcomes when accused parents won‟t agree to
withdraw care. Journal of Medical Ethics 35(10): 635-637.
Bass,
L.E., 2004. Child labour in Sub-shara Africa. Lynne: Rienner publishers.
Basu,
K. and P.H. Van, 1998. The economics of child labour. American Economic Review,
108: 663-679.
Binder,
M. and D. Sorgin, 1999. Labour force participation and house hold – work of
urban school children in mexico: Characteristics and consequences, economic
development and cultural change., Chicago University of Chicago press
Crosson,
T.C., 2008. Understanding c.Hild abuse and neglect boston: Ma pearson
education.
Ebgbo,
P.O., 2003. Street child: The core of child abuse and neglect in nigeria.
Children, Youth and Environment,: 1-13.
Ebigbo,
P.O., 1988. Psychosocial aspects of child abuse and neglect in africa in
nwogugu e. Enugu: Ebuka publisher.
Ebigbo,
P.O., 1989. Psycho social aspects of child abuse and neglect in africa
Ebigbo,
P.O., 1989. Situation analysis of child abuse and neglect in Nigeria making use
of Nigerian daily newspaper. Journal of African Psychology, 1: 95-101.
Ebigbo,
P.O. and S. Abaga, 1990. Sexual experience of street trading girls in the city
of Enugu. .
Ebigbo,
P.O. and G.I. Isuora, 1985. Child labour in market places in the city of Enugu
in bwibo, and onyango, . Children in Especially Difficult Circumstance.
Nairobi: AN PPCAN.
Edu,
D.O. and G.O. Edu, 1999. Child abuse in nigeria: Its impact on child
development.
Fawole,
O.I., A. A.J. and K.O. Osungbade, 2003. Interventions for violence prevention
among female workers in motor parks in south western nigeria: A review of
effectiveness African Journal of Reproductive Health, 7(1): 71-82.
Finkelman,
B., 1995. Fundamentals of research methods and data processing., Ibadan Joytal
Publications.
Hoyano,
L. and C. Keenan, 2007. Child abuse: Law and policy across boundaries oxford.
Oxford Oxford University Press.
Hughes,
S.D., 2009. Child abuse spikes during recession In: CBN News.
Idowu,
O., B. , M.M. Omirin and J.U. Osagie, 2011. Outsourcing for sustainable waste
disposal in lagos metropolis: Case study of agege local government, lagos.
Journals of Sustainable Development, 4(6): 116-131.
Kathleen,
C.F., 1988. Child sexual abuse. . New York Colombia University press.
Korbin,
J.E., 1983. Child abuse and neglect: Cross-cultural perspective. Berkeley CA:
University of California Press.
Malinosky,
R., R. and D.S. Hansan, 1993. Long – term consequences of childhood physical
abuse. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1): 68-79.
Murphy,
J.M., M. Jellinek, O. Quinn, G. Smith, P. F.G. and M. Goshko, 1991. Substance
abuse and serious child mistreatment: . Prevalence, Risk and Outcome. Court
Sample,, 15(31): 197-211.
Neuman,
W.L., 2003. Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches
5th Edn., USA.
Nigerian
Constitution., 1999. . 12(3).
Nwabueze,
M., 1992. The street children in nigeria: Social problem and social policy in
nigeria., Lagos: Olubamese Printers.
Nzewi
, E.N., 1988. Street hawking: An etiological factor in the sexual abuse of
children In: Second Biennial:National Scientific conference on child Abuse.
Nigeria.
Obiako,
M.N., 1986. Sexual abuse of children: The Nigerian styles: Anppcan / lauch,
october/november. Nigeria.
Okojie,
C.E., 1987. Income generation in occupational structure among the urban poor.
Owerri Evans publishers.
Oloko,
B., 1989. Children‟s work in urban Nigeria: A case study of young Lagos street
traders. UNICEF Staff Working Paper, 4: 19-30.
Onuzulike,
N.M., 2007. Gender differences in knowledge and attitude towards child street
hawking among rural resident parents Ibadan: Royal People Nigeria.
Oruwari,
Y., 1996. Children and the built environment in nigeria: Who should they depend
their interests in housing provisions Port-Harcourt His is Press.
Ross,
S., 1996. Risk of physical abuse to children of spouse abusing parent. .
Journal of Critical Ethics, 20: 589.
Schutt,
R.K., 2004. Investigating the social world – the process and practice of
research. 4th Edn.: Pine Forge press.
UNICEF,
1997. The state of the world‟s children. Available from
www.unicef.org/soiveg.report
UNICEF.,
2000. Nigeria and the convention on the rights of the child.Lagos: Unicef
country office. .