THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum can be defined as:
-
a work schedule
-
Particular body of courses
-
Total programmers in the school
-
Body of experience that lies between objectives and teaching methods.
Curriculum consists of all those experiences of the
child which the school in any way utilizes or attempts to influence. Curriculum
is all the learning experiences that children have under the direction of the
school.
Various
Types of Curriculum Decision
The
three organizations of curriculum are:
1. The subject curriculum
2. The activity curriculum
3. The core curriculum
SUBJECT
CURRICULUM:
It
is a curriculum which is organized subject by subject, one topic after the
other without mixture. May be taught in complete isolation from another.
Essential characteristics of subject curriculum:
(a)
There is a pattern of required of elective course planned in advance.
(b)
The constant subjects constitute the grater part of the common
learnings or general education programmes.
(c)
Requirement of subjects, does not mean identical experiences for all
students, there is room for industrial differences.
(d)
Individual differences interest and ability are met by elective curses
and special programme
(e)
Subject curriculum may or may not be given deliberate social directions
since emphasis is laid on mastery of the subject.
Advantages
of Subject Curriculum
(a)
It constitutes logical and effective method of organizing learning and
of interpreting and synthesizing new knowledge.
(b)
It is most appropriate for developing the intellectual power o the
individuals.
(c)
It is backed by long tradition and widely accepted.
(d)
It is more readily used by present day teachers
(e)
It is easier and simpler in curriculum planning
(f)
Evaluation of educational process is readily carried out in it.
Disadvantage
of Criticisms
(a)
The subject organization fragments learning, which may not be useful in
actual life situation.
(b)
It ignores the interest and the activities of the learner since the
instruction must be directed to the mastery of the subject.
(c)
It has been criticized as an inefficient arrangement of content for
learning and use.
(d)
It is divorced from current and persistent. Social problems.
(e)
It fails to develop habits of effective thinking.
A Core
Curriculum
The
term core curriculum designates a plan for organizing and scheduling the
programme of general education in the school.
Characteristics
of Core Curriculum
(a)
Core curriculum emphasis on social values.
(b)
The structure of core curriculum is fixed by broad social problems or
by theme of social living.
(c)
The ore area are required by all students, since it is general
knowledge
(d)
It is organized on the basis of broad units of work.
(e)
Problem solving is the dominant method of learning.
(f)
The core curriculum teacher utilizes much more flexible, freer
instructional method.
(g)
There is provision of special needs and interest as they arise.
(h)
Skills are taught as need arises.
(i)
It has variety of learning experiences.
(j)
Guidance of the best sort is an essential part of the activities of
core teachers.
Advantages
of Core Curriculum
(a)
It attempts to relate to program of life problem and students interest.
(b)
It focuses on problem which are real and have meaning for the students.
Disadvantages
of Core Curriculum
(a)
It fails to offer significant and systematic knowledge
(b)
Materials which are adequate to the scope are scare
(c)
Much of the materials used lack intellectual challenge and perspective.
(d)
The cross-cut of the current subject division is hard to come by.
Activity
Curriculum:
It
is more pertinent to the elementary school and is also called experience
curriculum.
Characteristics
of Activity Curriculum
(a)
The primary principle is that the interests and purposes of children
determine the educational programme.
(b)
Common learnings resulting from the pursuance of common interests since
child interest is the first delimiting factor in determining what to teach.
(c)
The activity curriculum is not planned in advance since the child’s
interest provide the starting point.
(d)
Problem solving is the dominant method of learning.
(e)
Activities are planned cooperatively by students and the teachers.
(f)
Children individuals needs and interests are meet within the programme.
(g)
Special subjects provide for specialized interest.
(h)
The curriculum may or may not have deliberate social direction.
Advantages
of Activity Curriculum:
(a)
Children are always engaged because it is activity oriented
(b)
It counteracts the passivity and sterility of learning.
(c)
It takes into account the needs and interest of children.
Disadvantages
of Activity Curriculum
(a)
Interest categories sacrifice the subject organization of knowledge and
do not replace it with any organizations.
(b)
There is an apparent lack of continuity of experience
(c)
A curriculum based primarily upon interest does not provide adequate
preparation for the future.
Broad
–field type of Curriculum
It
seeks rather to bring together into a broad organization of subject matter, the
knowledge and understanding pertinent to a whole area of study. It represents
an effort to fuse and integrate, the subject matter of closely related
discipline or school subject e.g. general science and social studies.
Advantage
of the Broad –field Curriculum
(a)
Integration of subject matter is facilitated by Broad-field approach.
(b)
The organization provides for a more functional organization of
knowledge.
(c)
It places emphasis on basic principle and generalizations rather than
on information and facts.
(d)
It has advantage of well developed materials and accepted method of
instruction
(e)
It enjoys more public support especially at secondary school level.
Disadvantages
or Criticisms of Broad-field Curriculum
(a)
Broad-field approach provides only a sketchy knowledge of a subject
area.
(b)
The broad-field type of course does not enable the learner to grasp the
inherent logic of subject matter.
General
Principles of Curriculum Development
Health
education curriculum development is not unlike curriculum development in other
disciplines, the following general principles will be helpful in health education
curriculum development programme.
1.
Education involves preparation for adult life. Prominent among those
essential skills are reading, simple arithmetic, oral and written expression,
and elements of the scientific approach to problem solving.
2.
The success of curriculum
development project is related to the number and variety of people
involved in the project. Participation is the second principle fundamental to
curriculum development. Simply stated in order for curriculum development. To
make the optimum contribution to the school programme, the greatest possible
number of individuals must be involved. The experience of participating in the
curriculum development process is as important as the resulting product, the
curriculum guide.
3.
The curriculum must reflect the value system of the community. It is
important to note that the curriculum consists of planned educative experiences
and not everything that happens to a student.
4.
The curriculum must reflect the value system of the community.
Curriculum development that runs counter to the value system of the community
is doomed to failure. It must be recognized that no one develops a set of
values completely independent of the environment, particularly in early
childhood.
5.
The progress in education is made slowly. in light of experience, it
must be recognized that large scale curriculum reform will come about slowly,
but individual school and school system need to be discouraged from undertaking
innovations in their curriculum development.
Principles
with Special Application to Health Education
In
developing the health education curriculum, it is important to consider each of
the general principles outlined above. In addition, it is important to consider
specific principles with direct application to health education. These
principles might be thought of as principles of health education, and as such
they serve as guiding rules in the development of the health education
curriculum.
1. Learning is an inherent drive: Children
are born to learn: knowledge, attitudes, and practices (habits and skills).
Given a normally healthful climate, they grow in physical stature, emotional
maturity, the use of social skills and spiritual well-being.
2. positive
example promotes the development of health practices. The family is the social
unit that exerts the most direct and profound influence on children. The
intimate contacts and shared experiences mitigate in the direction of accepted
attitudes and practices. Health attitude are passed on by parents to their
children, partly intentionally, partly through their examples, and partly in
various subtle and imperceptible ways of which they nor the children are aware.
3. Early
childhood learning tend to persist. The school enters the development sense so
late in the life of the child that remedial education becomes its principal
task. Thus the school must foster unlearning as part of the learning process. A
long range goal of health education should be the establishment of desirable
health practices in infancy and early childhood. Since this goal can only be
accomplished by the parents, it becomes necessary for the schools to focus on
preparation for parenthood and to include programs of education of parents and
prospective parents. Throughout all phases of education it must be recognized
that health practices are well established in early life.
4. Thorndike’s
Principles of learning: readiness, exercise, and effect apply in health
education. In simple terms the principle of readiness recognized that there is
a psychologically opportune time for a particular learning: when the
individuals feels a need to know or to the principle of exercise recognizes
that learning are strengthened through exercise or repetition. It should be
emphasized that undesirable learning are acquired in the same manner as are
desirable ones. We learn by doing. The principle of effect recognizes that the
act tends to be repeated when and if the experience is pleasant, but not that
pleasant experiences are remembered better.
5. A
favourable Environment Promotes Learning: Five specific considerations for the
teacher
1. to
provide a fovrouable physical environment
2. to
foster a favourable emotional environment
3. To inform, that is to present new facts and ideas not
otherwise available to the learners.
4. to inspire motivate; and
5. to inspire or explain. If a capable teacher focuses on these
functions the result will very likely be an environment that encourages
learning.
6. Reinforcement is conducive to positive learning. Positive reinforcement
is usually most effective, but there are times for negative reinforcement. Such
negative reinforcement need not be in the form of punishment. It may, infact be
the simple removal of a support such as keeping forbidden objects and of sight
of young children.
7. The perception of the individual influences learning. This
means that people react to their perception of what they hear or see and not to
what is said or done. Perception may depend on the interpretation or
understanding of words or it may arise on cultural differences; for example, in
some cultures, milk is not palable because the cow is sacred, whereas the use of
powdered milk might be acceptable. It is especially important that teachers
determine how the learner perceives an experiences.
8. Health learning may not be immediately applicable and may
not result in an immediate change in behaviour. That is that there may be
considerable delay between learning and application. This fact is especially
true of the learning related to the recognition of disease, to long time
effects of diet and of stress and to the health needs related to child bearing
and child caring.
Constructing the Guide
In considering the total
program, a format such as the following might be employed:
i.
title of guide
ii.
introduction
iii.
Philosophy of health education, health education defined why health
education?
iv.
Health education programme aims: long-range goals, objectives,
behavioural objectives or competencies by goals level. Concepts by grade level.
v.
Program content: time allotments, broad layout plan –elementary, broad
layout plan secondary, elementary, learning activities, resource aid and
materials
vi.
Evaluation in health education: elementary, secondary
vii.
Selected references, for students by level, for teachers by level.
ORGANIZATION
AND CURRICULUM OF HEALTH EDUCATION
Administrative structure and health science
instruction
The administration of health science
instruction varies with each educational system. In some schools and colleges
it is placed in such areas as physical education, science and home economics.
In other schools and colleges it is a separate area by itself. Most often
health is administratively located in the health and physical education
department. In the larger schools especially, and in colleges and universities,
there may be a separate health education department with full-time personnel
who have been trained in the area of health education. Such an administrative
arrangement is conducive to good interrelationships between the school and
college and public health agencies, to the development of a health council, and
to a well-coordinate and well-integrated health program. In smaller and
medium-sized schools and colleges, there should also be full-time health
educators charged with this important responsibility,
The
physical education person may times is assigned such responsibilities as
coaching, intramurals, and special events in addition to physical education
classes. If the responsibility for health education is given to a teacher of
physical education, in addition to these numerous other duties, some
responsibility is going to suffer. In many causes, with pressure for winning
teams and successful intramural programs, the class instruction program is
neglected. School and college administration should the curriculum. It should
be assigned only to qualified persons and should receive ample time and
facilities to make it effective.
Every
school and college, regardless of size, should have someone on its staff
assigned to coordinate the various aspects of the health program. In larger
schools and colleges this might be a full-time position. In smaller ones it
could be the principal, chairman of the health department, or some qualified
and interested staff member.
The
administration of the health education program should also include a health
council or committee. Such a group of individuals, regardless of type of size
of school, can play an important part in planning and carrying out the health
education on program.
Developing a
health education Curriculum:
The
curriculum commission of the School Health Division of AAHPER has proposed a
guide for developing a health curriculum that will meet the needs of
individuals associated with schools. The guide was developed by curriculum
directors and others responsible for health curriculum development.
The
guide proposes certain steps to be taken in developing a curriculum.
Preplanning: In order for a program to succeed, it
must have community support as well as support form the administration and staff.
A written policy should include reference to funds, time allocations, class
space, and instructional materials.
Two
committees should be formed. The first would be an in-school steering
committee, consisting of representation from the students, teachers,
administrators, parents, school nurses, and special interest or ethnic groups.
A second or advisory committee would be out-of-school and consist f community
personnel (counselors, lawyers, doctors, health specialist, and others) and
representatives form the PTA and other organizations.
The
basic considerations necessary in the development of any curriculum include:
(1)
meeting all state and local requirements;
(2)
identifying behavioural objectives
(3)
meeting the needs of community members, students, and specific
community requirements;
(4)
developing a health education philosophy;
(5)
Considering controversial areas;
(6)
Developing a work schedule; and
(7)
Exploring full all sources of funding
Program The status of the present
health education program should be evaluated in terms of pupil knowledge and
behavioural objective standards as well as staff, policies, budget, and
facilities. The conclusions and recommendations should be thoroughly discussed
and evaluated.
Broad
content areas: content areas should be based on student needs and opinions of
the steering and advisory committees. In addition, student health records and
absences might also be evaluated.
Format: The format of the curriculum guide should
include the specific content area, behavioural or instructional objectives,
concepts, student learning experiences, student and teacher resources, and
evaluation techniques for students and teachers.
Field Testing: Field testing should be conducted at
a variety of levels. Both novice and experienced teachers should be used as
well as all types of students; rural, urban, and disadvantaged. Changes should
be made where indicated.
Implementation: The plan for
implementation should be specific in terms of target date and schedule.
Administration approval should be included.
Re-Evaluation: All programs should be re-evaluated
every 3 to 5 years. Students ‘ needs change over a period of years, and the
curriculum must also change to meet these needs.
Content
areas for the health science instruction program
There
is considerable knowledge and information that may be taught in health
education. With all the literature that is available in such forms as
textbooks, resource books, pamphlets, and promotional materials, it is
important that content be selected with care.
Some
basic principles for selecting curriculum experiences in the health science
instruction program follow:
1. The
content of health science instruction on should be based on the needs and
interests of the students.
Developmental characteristics
of children and youth and psychologic needs of students, such as security,
approval success in athletics, appearance, and peer group approval, are
considerations in relating teaching to the interests of students.
2. The
problems and topics covered must be appropriate to the maturity level of the
students.
3. The
materials used should be current and scientifically materials and experiences
should be provided.
4. Pupils
should be able to identify with the health problems should be geared to or
related to the daily living experiences of the student body.
5. Health
should be recognized as a multidisciplinary subject, and, as such, subject
matter projects, and methods of teaching should take cognizance of the new
developments. In the related sciences.
6. Health
science instruction should be taught in light of a rapidly changing society and
knowledge of new ways of affecting the behaviour of human beings.
7. Health
teaching should take place in a healthful psychologic and physicalen
environment.
8. To
be most effective, the health teacher must exemplify good health and be well
informed, happy, and successful
9. The
basic concepts in health should be identified and taught.
10. The
new technologic methods, and aids should be used to improve visual
presentations of health materials to students.
11. Students’
previous health experiences should be considered.
12. Planning
for health science instruction should be a total school or college endeavour,
with students, teachers, especialists, and consultants participating.
Furthermore, health instruction should permeate the entire school or college
curriculum.
13. Objectives
of the school or college health program, including knowledge, attitudes,
practices, and skills, need to be reviewed and the program planned intelligently
and meaningfully in light of these goals.
14. The
community should be involved in health science instruction, including personnel
form the public health department, voluntary health associations, medical and
dental professions, and other health associations and agencies.
15. School
health science instruction should be closely integrated with home conditions.
16. New
methods of organizing for teaching, including the non-graded school, team
teaching, individualized instruction, and programmed instruction, should be
considered.
17. Constant
research and evaluation of the program should take place.
18. Health
instruction in general should share the same prestige and respect in the eyes
of school or college administrators, teachers, and students as other respected school
or college offerings, with time allotments and other considerations receiving
equal attention.
Sex
education, drugs, and other critical content areas in health science
instruction:
The
question often arises as to whether such critical subjects as sex, narcotics,
and alcohol education should be included in the health science instruction
program. The fact that some of these problems are more pronounced in certain
communities, and possibly restricted to some population groups, and the fact
that such education might tend to stimulate curiosity are reasons put forth for
not including them in courses of study.
On
the other-hand, instruction in regard to the ill effects of narcotics and
alcohol is required by law in many states. Furthermore, it is felt that if
children and youth are provided with the facts, intelligent instruction in
these subjects will act as a preventive measure. In the area of sex education,
it is believed that the term sex education creates opposition among many
parents and church groups and consequently should not be used. If it is
introduced in the natural process of instruction without undue emphasis, much
good can be done.
The
nature of the instruction will depend on the local situation. Where a narcotics
or alcohol problem exists, there should be provision in the school curriculum
for the presentation of sociologic, physiologic, and psychologic students
should understand these facts and be guided intelligently in making the right
decisions and establishing a sound standard of values.
Health
education is not the only area in which discussions of sex, narcotics, and
alcohol should take place. Social studies, biology, general science, physical
education, and other classes also have a responsibility. Many phases of these
subjects logically fit into certain aspects of these courses.
Teachers
must appreciate the importance of such instruction and the need for treating
these subjects objectively on the basis of the facts. It is not necessary for
the teacher to take a definite stand on the subject. Instead, if students
obtain the necessary facts through research or some other method and then
interpret them intelligently, the right answers will be clear. The students
make their own decisions, not on the basis of the teacher’s position but on the
basis of the facts they have collected.
In
regard to sex education, the emphasis should be on the psychologic and
sociologic aspects rather than only on the biologic aspects. The goal is to
have students recognize what is desirable behaviour and what constitutes a
healthy sexuality rather than only to gain knowledge of reproductive organs.
Sex education should not be a separate course but should be included and
discussed in every course where its various aspects arise during regular discussions.
Parents and representative community groups should be consulted and asked to
participate in any discussions relative to the planning for instruction in this
area. It is important to have well-trained and qualified teachers handling such
instruction. If the right leadership is provided, the result can be beneficial
to all concerned, but if poor leadership exists, results can be harmful.
Health
science instruction at the preschool and elementary school levels:
The
committee on health education for pre-school children of the American school
health association lists the following as a topical outline of content for
pre-school children.
·
Cleanliness and grooming
·
Dental health
·
Eyes, ears, nose
·
Rest and sleep
·
Nutrition
·
Growth and development
·
Family living
·
Understanding ourselves and getting along
·
Prevention and control of disease
·
Safety
For each of these topics the
committee has identified key concepts, suggested learning experience, and means
of evaluation.
Health education at the
elementary level is aimed primarily at having the child develop good health
habits and health attitudes, and at helping him or her live happily,
healthfully, and safely. This is achieved in great measure by adapting good
health practices to the regular routine of school and home living, rather than
by dispensing facts concerning health. The responsibility for the guidance,
planning, and stimulation of good health practices and attitudes falls on the
classroom teacher. He or she is the guiding influence, and his or her
understanding of good health will determine to a great degree the effectiveness
of such a program.
The type of health program
offered should be adapted to the child’s level of understanding and planned in
accordance with his or her interests and needs. Health education is a
continuous process and cannot be compartmentalized within a definite subject
that are part of the child’s life.
At the primary grade level
the emphasis should be made more on the child and his or her daily routine as
it is affected by certain health practices and attitudes. The child’s various
routines and associations at school and at home form the basis fro the health
emphasis. The importance of a healthful classroom environment is stressed. Such
items as cleanliness, seating, use of lavatories, safety, and good mental
hygiene are brought out as the child plays, eats, and shares experiences that
are common to all youngsters.
The committee on health
education for Elementary School Children of the American school health
Association lists the following as a topical outline of content for this age
group.
·
Grades 1, 2, and 3
·
Cleanliness and grooming
·
Rest and exercise
Growth, posture, role of
physician and dentist, individual responsibility for one’s health.
Responsibility for the health of others. Dental health. Vision and hearing.
Babies, nutrition, making new friends, being alone sometimes family time,
protection from infection, food protection, safety.
Grades 4, 5, and 6
Health care, cleanliness and grooming, vision and
care of eyes, hearing and care of ears, heart, teeth exercise, rest, and sleep
nutrition, growth and development, family living, understanding ourselves,
getting along with others, making decision, environmental health, prevention and control diseases, safety and first aid.
For each of these topics the committee has
identified key concepts, suggested learning experiences, and means of
evaluation.
In
the upper elementary years a planned progression in instruction is developed. Although
there is still stress on the actual practices and attitudes concerned with the
daily routines and associations, more factual information is incorporated to
form the basic for such habits.
Furthermore,
more and more responsibility is placed on the child for his or her own
self-control.
Trips
and textbooks that point up the value of healthful living and include
interesting and inspiring stories, visual aids, class discussions, and projects
will leave their impression on the child’s thinking.
Because
health experiences should be based on the needs and interests of the child, the
wise teacher will use various means to obtain accurate information about these needs
and interests. Such techniques as talks with parents and pupils, observations, of
children under various situations, a perusal of health records, a study of the
home environment and community together with scientific measuring devices that
have been developed to determine health suggestions for the classroom teacher.
The classroom teacher is the key school person involved in the health of the
elementary school child. The organization of the school with the self-contained
classroom enables him or her to continually observe the pupils and to note
deviations form normal. Continuous contract with the same children over a long
period of time also makes it possible to know a great deal about their
physical, social, emotional, and the teacher can help them develop the right
knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Some of the responsibilities of the classroom
teacher in regard to the health of the pupils are to.
1.
Possess an understanding of what contributes a well-rounded school
health program and the teacher’s part in it.
2.
Meet with the school physician, nurse, and others to determine how he
or she can best contribute to the total health program.
3.
Become acquainted with parents and homes of students and establish
parent-school cooperation.
4.
Discover the health needs and interests of his or her pupils.
5.
Organize health teaching units that are meaningful in terms of the
health needs and interests of his or her students.
6.
See that children heading special care are referred to proper places
for help.
7.
Know first aid procedures.
8.
Participate in the work of the school health council. If none exists,
interpret the need of one.
9.
Provide an environment for children while at school that is conducive
to healthful living.
10. Continually be on the alert
for children with deviations form normal behaviour and signs of communicable
diseases.
11. Provide experiences at
school for healthful living
12. Help pupils assume an
increasing responsibility for their own health as well as for the health of
others.
13. Set an example of healthful
living for the child
14. Motivate the child to be
well and happy
15. Be present at health
examinations of pupils and contribute in any way helpful to the physician in
charge.
16. Follow through in
cooperation with the nurse to see that remediable health defects are corrected.
17. Interpret the school health
program to the community and enlist its support in solving health problems.
18. Provide a well-rounded class
physical education program.
19. Help supervise various
activities that directly affect health-school lunch, rest periods.
20. Become familiar with
teaching aids and school and community resources for enhancing the health program
21. Be aware of the individual
differences of pupils
Health
Science Instruction at the secondary school level
The
structural organization of the secondary school level differs from that of the
elementary level. At the elementary level, the classroom teacher frequently
takes overall charge of a group of children. He or she teaches them throughout
the entire day and supervises their activities. At the secondary level, the
student has many different who specialize in subject matter to a greater degree
than they specialize in pupils. Departmentalization into such subject areas as
mathematics, social studies, and English affects health education.
First,
this structural organization points up the need for concentrated courses in
health education, such as those found in the other subject areas.
Second,
it emphasizes the need for a specialist in the teaching of health education.
Just as specialists are needed in English and the other sects offered at the
secondary level, so are they needed in the field of health education. The body
of scientific. Knowledge, the training needed, and the importance of the
subject make such a specialist a necessity.
Third,
this structural organization stresses the need for coordination and
cooperation. Health outs across many subject areas, as well as the total school
life of the student. In order that it may be properly treated in the various
subject areas such as science, home economics, and social studies, in order
that the physical environment and the emotional environment may be properly
provided for, in order that health services may be most effectively
administered, and in order that close cooperation and coordination between the
school and the rest of the community may be obtained, there is an essential
need for some type of coordinating machinery, such as a school health council.
The Junior
High School: Junior high school students need knowledge and attitudes that will
result in desirable health practices. The fact that students may not be
interested in such information represents a challenge for the junior high
school educational program. The consumption of many sweets as a substitute for
essential foods, omission of breakfast, an interests in personal grooming, a
need to understand one’s bodily make-up,
the maturing sexual drive, and other factors make it imperative to get
across health information at this time.
Health
content should be adapted to the needs and interests of the students in this
age group. Stress should be on the personal health problems of the students
themselves, how hereditary factors affect their health, how good or poor health
is manifested, and how health practices affect attainment of life ambitions and
goals. Such topics as food, rest, exercise, first aid, safety, alcohol and
narcotics, mental health, communicable diseases, growth and functions of the
human body, personality development, family life, and community health should
be included.
The
health teaching in the junior high school should consider the developmental
tasks that characterize the early adolescent. These include the desire for
independence from adults, self-respect, and peer identification, as well as
accepting one’s physical make-up adjusting to the opposites sex, and
establishing values.
The
committee on health education for junior High school of the American School
Health Association lists the following as a topical outline of content for this
age group:
1.
health status
2.
Cleanliness and grooming
3.
rest, sleep, and relaxation
4.
exercise, posture, recreation and leisure time activities
5.
sensory perception, nutrition, growth and development
6.
understanding ourselves, personality, getting along with others, family
living, alcohol, drugs, smoking and tobacco environment, air and water
pollutions, consumer health
Disease
For
each of these topics the committee has identified key concepts, suggested
learning experiences, and means of evaluation.
The Senior
High School: During grades ten, eleven, and twelve, the stress continues to be on
many subject areas that were emphasized for the health content in the junior
high school years. However, the material and experiences presented should be
more advanced and adapted to the age group found in the later high school
years. Such topics as the structure and function of the human body could stress
more scientific concepts as found through research, evaluation of individual
health needs in the light of proper balance in one’s daily routine, and the
means of attaining proper emotional maturity and mental health.
The
committee on health education for senior high school of the America school health association
lists the following as a topical outline of content for this age group:
Health
status, fatigue and sleep, exercise, recreational activities, sensory
perception, nutrition, growth and development towards maturity, family living,
alcohol, drugs, smoking and tobacco, health protection, noise pollution, health
agencies, health careers, world health, safety and accidents.
For
each of these topics the committee has listed key concepts, suggested learning
experiences, and means of evaluation.
Although
personal health receives considerable attention during the high school years, a
major part of the teaching is concerned with problems of adult and family
living and community health. Such health areas as preparation for marriage and
family life, communicable and non-communicable diseases control, evaluation of
professional health services, environmental health, industrial health, consumer
health education, accident prevention, emergency care, protection from
environmental hazards such as radiation, health agencies at the local, state,
national, and international levels, and the various health careers open to high
school students are included.
Some
students will not be going to college. This means that the senior high school
years offer the last opportunity to impress boys and girls with their health
responsibilities to themselves, their loved ones, and the members of their
community.
Health
education at the secondary level can have a lasting effect for the betterment
of human lives. The leadership provided, the methods used, and the stress
placed on such an important aspect of living will determine in great measure
the extent to which each school fulfills its responsibility.
Health
science Instruction at the College and University Level
Years
ago the college and university health education offerings, consisted mainly of
lectures on various aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the human body.
These were usually given by medical personnel and were often a collection of
uninteresting facts or unrelated to the student’s interests and health problem.
In more recent years this type of presentation has changed. The emphasis has
shifted from the factual medical knowledge to health problems that students
themselves encounter in day-to-day living and also to those subjects in which
students are especially interested. Consequently, discussions are now held on
subjects concerned with family living, sex education, personal and community
health, mental health, drugs, environmental health, nutrition, the prevention
of diseases, and related subjects.
A
president’s commission on Higher Education stressed the importance of health
instruction for college students. It particularly stressed instruction based
directly on the practical problems of personal and community health.
The
American College Health Association has recommended that every college and
university have a requirement in health education for all students who fall
below acceptable standards on a college- level health knowledge test.
The
junior college is a particularly strategic position to offer health instruction.
The 2-year college reaches a significant segment of the population that does
not go on the 4-year colleges and universities. Furthermore, research has shown
that junior college students have demonstrated as much as 25% more interest in
health problems that high school students. Junior college students are more
mature, and this may be an explanation of their increased interest in health
problems. Topics such as sex
instruction, marriage, mental health, emotional health alcohol, tobacco, and
narcotics are of particular interest to this segment of the college population.
It
is generally felt that a health education department should be established to
coordinate the instruction in health, that student needs should help determine
subject content, that only qualified faculty members be permitted to teach
health education classes, and that classes be limited to a maximum of 35
students. Testing of new students is also recommended, after which those
students who fall below desirable standards must take the required health
education courses.
Presently,
health education courses offered in colleges and universities are listed in
college catalogues under such names as Personal Hygiene, healthful living.
Course are taught in such departments as health, physical education, and
recreation; health education; biology, education; health and safety; basic
studies; psychology; and biologic sciences. Students required to take such
courses vary from only those students in schools of education or in departments
of health, physical education, and recreation, or elementary education major
students, to liberal arts students. In some institutions courses are required
for women but not for men.
There
is a need for a uniform requirement for all college students to demonstrate
that they know basic facts in the field of health. Those students who fail to
meet such standards should be required to take a health course, which is basic
to the general education, productivity, and health of each person.
Health
education for adults: Adults are the guiding force in any community. Their prestige, their
positions, and their interests determine the extent to which any project or
enterprise will be a success. Therefore, if the schools are to have an adequate
health education program, if the knowledge that is disseminated, attitudes that
are developed, and practices that are encouraged are to become a permanent part
of the child’s being and routine, the adult must be considered. Unless this is
done, the schools’ efforts will be useless.
There
is a great need for parental education and for education in regard to the many
health problems that confront any community. Adults are interested not only in
children’s health problems but also in the causes of sickness and death in the
population and ways in which they can live a heal their life. Adult education
is increasing in this country. It is important that health education be
included in any such program.
Schools
and colleges should play a key part in adult education programs because of the
facilities, staff, and other resources at their disposal. They should cooperate
fully with the many official and voluntary health agencies and other interested
community groups in the furtherance of health objectives. Adult health
education programme should be designed to discover community health problems,
understand the health needs of children, and understand school health programs.
Such discovery and understanding should lead to active participation in meeting
health needs and in solving health problems. Such a program would also improve
the health knowledge, attitudes, and practices of adults.
METHODS OF
TEACHING HEALTH
1. Lecture,
recitation, and assignments in the textbook represent a limited array or
approved techniques for the modern health class. Although good textbooks are
important many other methods can motivate students and create interest in
health topics.
The
methods used should be adapted to the group of students being taught, be in
accordance with the objectives sought, be capable of using by the instructor,
stimulate interest among the students, and be adaptable to the time, space, and
equipment in the school program. Some of the more popular methods for teaching
health are discussed in the following paragraphs.
2. Problems
solving is one of the most effective and best methods for teaching health. Health
topics can be stated in the form of problems, and then the students can use a
systematic approach to obtain and answer. For example, the problem can be
stated: “What are the effects of narcotics on health? A systematic approach to
this problem might include:
1. Stating
the nature and scope of the problem,
2. Defining
the various possible solutions to the problems.
3. Collecting scientific information to support each of the
various aspects of the problem.
4. Analyzing the information gathered as to its source
authoritativeness, date of origin, and other pertinent factors, and
5. Drawing conclusions to solves the problems. Textbook
assignments may be given, followed by class discussions based on the readings.
3. Field
trips can include planned visits to an agency or place where health matters are
important, such as a hospital, local health department, water purification
plant health clinic, or fire department.
4. Class
discussions on health topics of interest can be encouraged among the members of
the class.
5. Demonstrations
are an excellent method to show how something functions or is constructed, such
as good and poor from of posture or first aid procedures.
6. Experiments;
such as observing the growth of animals when certain types of diet are
administered, are informative.
7. Independent
study in which the students are assigned health topics to investigate is
helpful.
8. Resource
people, such as doctors, dentists, firemen, or other specialists, can be
brought in to speak to health classes.
9. Audiovisual
aids: such as films, network educational television and cable television, films
trips, slides, radio, and recordings, helps make health material interesting
and clear.
10. Graphic
materials such as posters, graphs, charts, bulletin boards, and exhibits are
valuable for motivating students in regard to health matters, arousing
interests, attracting attention, and visualizing ideas.
11. Interviews
can be arranged in which students get views and recommendations of such persons
as officers of the local health department, representatives of safety councils,
members of voluntary health agencies, and heads of medical and dental
societies.
12. Panels
can be made up of students for an informal exchange of ideas or viewpoints
regarding pertinent health matters.
13. Buzz sessions
in which a class is organized into small groups of students for the purpose of
discussing health topics, permitting each student more opportunity for
discussion, is an excellent method.
14. Class
committees can be formed by dividing a class and assigning topics for
exploration.
15. Dramatizations,
such as a play or a skit, can be put on by a class to bring to the pupils’ attention
a healthy matter such as the importance of safety on the playground.
16. Surveys
of health problems in the school, college, or community that need investigating
and solving can be suggested, Survey froms can be constructed by pupils
themselves or else standard from may be available.
17. Games
and quizzes patterned after popular shows on radio or television can provide
interesting methods and challenge the thinking of students.
18. Health
aids can be provided in which community health agencies may offer opportunities
for students to obtain experience by keeping records or engaging in various
activities Working on a Red Cross blood program is an example.
CONCENTRATED,
CORRELATED, INTEGRATED, AND INCIDENTAL HEALTH TEACHING
Four
ways of including health education in the school offering are through
concentrated, correlated, integrated, and incidental teaching.
Concentrated
health teaching
Concentrated
health education refers to the provision in the school offering for regularly
scheduled courses that are confined solely to a consideration of health, rather
than c combination with some other subject area. It implies a scheduled time
for class meetings, and a planned course of study. Such courses should be given
on the secondary school level. Furthermore, such courses should be held for a
daily class period at least one semester during the ninth or tenth grade and
also during eleventh or twelfth grade.
Concentrated
health education courses required of all students result in many educational
benefits. There is a specialized bod of knowledge to impart that can best be
given to students in a concentrated manner, rather than by depending on some
other subject to provide this information. It allows for better planning,
teaching progression, and evaluation. It further allows for the giving of credit;
add such as is given for any other course. It is more likely to result in
health instruction by teachers who have specialized in this particular are who
are qualified and interested in participating in such a course. It offers
greater opportunities for discussing personal health problem, for guidance and
counseling in regard to these problems, and for using teaching methods
appropriate to such a course.
Correlated
health teaching
Correlated
health education refers to the practice of including health concepts in the
various subject areas. For example, in the area of history the relationship of
the rise and fall of various groups of people could be related to their health
and the prevalence of disease, as could the increased speed of transportation
and the transfer of disease from one country to the other. In the area of
English, a study of the works of literature could be selected with a view to
pointing up the health problems of individuals during various period of
history. The relationship of music and of art to mental health could be brought
out. Mathematics could be used as a tool to figure the costs of various health
probjects. Science could bring out the health aspects in relations to the
structure and functions of the human body. Home economics provides an excellent
setting for teaching such topics as nutrition and personal cleanliness. There
is hardly a subject area that cannot be correlated with health education.
Incidental health teaching
Incidental
health education refers to the education that akes place during normal teaching
situations, where attention is focused on problems concerned with health. Such
occasions may arise as the result of a question asked by a student; a problem
that is raised in class; a personal problem that conforms a member of the
class, a family, or the community; or a sudden illness, accident, or special
project. It represents and opportunity for the teacher, physician, dentist, or
nurse to provde educational information. When a student has his or her eyes
examined or chest x-rayed, for example, many questions arise and opportunities
ad afforded to give the student beneficial information. In many cases this will
benefit the health of the child more than information given in more formalized,
planned class situations. Teachers and others should constantly keep in mind
the necessity for continually being alert to these “teachable moments”. When a
child is curious and wants information, this establishes a time for dynamic
health education. Incidental health education can be planned for in advance.
Situations and incidents should be anticipated and utilized to their fullest in
the interests of good health.
Integrated
health teaching.
In
integrated health teaching, health learnings are integrated into aspects of the
classroom program. Learning experiences are organized around a central
objective. Whereas in correlated teaching, health is brought into various parts
of a unit of study are related to a central theme. Two such themes might be
that of living in a city or planning a visit to a foreign country. Health is
one consideration involved in the planning, discussion, and assignments
concerning this central theme. Health factors, for example, can be an important
consideration in living in a large metropolitan city or in going to a foreign
country. There are problems concerned with water supply, sewage treatment, fire
prevention, disease control, immunizations, and medical examinations.
Integrated health teaching finds its best setting in the elementary school.
Organization
of health classes:
A
problem that frequently arises in connection with the organization of health
science is whether boys and girls should meet together or separately. Where
health science instruction is a combined program with physical education, and
where the boys and girls are in separate classes, it would probably be best to
conduct the health classes separately. On the other hean, if health science and
physical education are no combined, they should be handled in the same manner
as any other subject. This means that there would be mixed groups. The fact
that the subject matter is health science should not mean separation of sexes.
Some leaders in the field maintain this concept is wrong and advocate keeping
the sexes separate as a means o getting better organization.
If
boys and girls meet as a mixed group for health science they should continue as
a mixed group throughout the entire course. It is not wise to have them meet
separately when certain topics are considered. To do so tends to place undue
emphasis on certain aspects of health science. It is best to treat al subjects
in a natural and educational manner.
EVALUATION
Evaluation
may be considered an appraisal, assessment, or measurement in the broadest and
most complete sense. The process of evaluating therefore should be considered
along with measurement. Measurement answers the questions of how much, and how
often, it is concerned wit quantities and qualities in evidence. Evaluation
goes beyond the mechanics of testing and measuring to judgment in the light of
aims and objectives.
Evaluation
answers the question of whether or not a particular experience has value. It is
a continuous process.