CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Vocational education is among the
vital tools an individual can use to be developed. It has played a vital role
in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Vocational education is about work and
training for useful employment in trade, industries, agriculture, business and
home making etc. the emphasis on vocation is to prepare one for self reliance.
American vocational association
(1971) sees vocational subjects as those designed to develop skills, abilities,
understanding, attitude, work habit and appreciation compassing knowledge and
information needed by any workers to enter and make progress in employment on a
useful and productive basis. Vocational education contributes to the production
of good citizens by developing their physical, social, civic, cultural and
economic competencies.
One of the goals of the technical
and vocational education as documented in the National policy on Education
(2004) is to give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who
shall be self-reliant. When this goal is adequately achieved, it would lead to
a sustainable technological development. Raymond, (2007). Suggested vocational education and training should be
made interesting by gearing the students towards self reliant to discourage
unemployment syndrome. Vocational education is an important part of the
education system with one element of increasing employment opportunities it is
an essential component of strategies to reduce and prevent child labour. Many
children drop out school because they do not see the relevance of education to
their lives. In many cases, the decision not to send a child to school is taken
by the parent, who would rather have their children enter the workplace as they
do not see how learning to read, write, and do sums can help put bread on the
table (source). In order to influence the decisions of at – risk children and
their parents, education should have a tangible end, particularly in terms of
improving future employment prospects. In such circumstances and where older
children are concerned, the focus should be on the transition from school to
work, either through vocational education or skills training programs.
Vocational subjects are instructions intended to equip
person’s for industrial or commercial occupations. It may be obtained formally
either in trade Schools, technical secondary schools or in on-the job training
programmes or more informally by picking up the necessary skills on the job.
Technological development and advancement revolved around a sound vocational
education programme as citied by Otuage, Mayes (2010) in (Bulus, 1991)
vocational skills in schools is a relative modern development. Akaniwor (1988)
observes that the bed rock of any technical break through is the existence of
appropriate skills, abilities ad competence both mental and physical as
equipment for the individual to live in the society is a dynamic instrument of
change. According to Bulus (1991) vocational education involves the acquisition
of skills and competences that can help individuals to function productively in
industries and commercial occupation.
Self-reliant is one’s own efforts and abilities
(Merrian, 2006). When somebody acquires skills in any occupation, such person
can establish his or her own business and even employ others. Igweh (2008) such
person is self-reliant. Bassey (2009) declared self-reliance as that which
pre-supposes the attainment and autonomy without unnecessary resorting to
begging or browning. He opined that “a self-reliant individual is one that
achieves steady supply of his needs, one that diversifies his resources to
reduce dependency on other assistance. Self reliance emphasizes growth
development and development in the life of a citizen, politically, socially and
economically. Igweh (2008), stressed that the most suitable definition development
in terms of reduction in the levels of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment
and income inequality. However, Faladum, Omeogiafor and Ezeaku (1999) in Nwogu
(2009) remark that National development compasses social and political
development as well as economic development as well as economic development which
is defined as the attainment of a number of ideas of modernization such as a
rise in productivity social and economic equity improved institution and
values”. Economic development is an important part of general development in
any society.
The influence of parents in the development of
students interest in vocational subjects cannot be over emphasized. This is
because parents seem to have much influence on children’s choice of educational
career. The socio-economic status of parent of a child determines the type of
career one choose to do, some parents have biased and rigid thoughts regarding
the occupational choices of a child/children. Parent forget that every type of work, once it is beneficial
to the individual and society, is worthy sign of potential success in students
vocational pursuits requires the identification of the students interest
aptitudes, abilities, values and judgments, if these will be discovered, it
requires a guidance counselor who will give the appropriate occupational
information to the student with proper exposition to various opportunities
available in the would of work.
It is not surprising that students are not interested
in vocational subjects. Osuala (1992) opined that, At the heart of our society
and economic problem is a national attitude that implies that vocational
subjects are designed for somebody else’s children and is mean primarily for
the children of the poor. This same attitude is shared by students. Thus, it
makes the students lack interest in the study of vocational subjects
particularly Home economics.
The skill that teachers exhibit in teaching influences
the student enrolment in vocational subjects. Onwuka, (1981) postulated that
the method of approach is very vital in any teaching/learning situation. The
way the teacher presents the subject matter to the learner may make a student
like or dislike a subject. Nwogwugwu (1989) pointed out the need for
blending theoretical and practical work
in teaching of subjects as to stimulate students interest more especially in
vocational subjects. No technique, no method, no device, no gadget can
guarantee success, but only an effective qualified teacher can adequately
execute these Okafor, (1987). Thus the greatest motivating device year
discovered is the highly motivated teacher of teacher of students are to be
involved actively in teaching and learning process in a way of projects, field
trips, directed field activities etc, note learning and subject centered
orientation should be changed to a more practical and child centered out-look.
The increase in qualities and quantities of outputs should be primarily due to
improvement in the quality of the teacher and strategies of teaching and
learning adopted.
Statement
of Problem
In spite of the importance of
vocational education to the development of both individuals and the society at
large, there is not muct emphasis placed on the effective strategies of
teaching and learning vocational subjects in Nigeria. The frequent occurrence
of low students’ participation in vocational education courses has been a great
concern to all-well-meaning individuals, institutions and industries. Despite
all efforts made to recognize it, yet little or no attention has been given to
it. No meaningful development was made in the area of vocational education
Unitial 1981, when the national policy on education was published. Due to total
neglect, vocational education suffered a major decline in quality, number,
policy and directive in Nigeria.
Vocational subjects ought to attract
many students because of it laudable importance but reverse has been the case.
The reasons for this probably due to people’s perception that it does not
require specialized kind of training the students have the feeling that even if
one is at home the requests skill to cook, farm, etc can be acquired without
formal training.
People are ignorant of the
importance of the vocational subjects which could help males and females
students receive formation and be able to work solution to problems. Also, it
enables the students to acquire skills, abilities essential for independent
life meet up with personal and family needs more especially in this economic
difficulties.
1.4 Significance of the Study
It is hoped that this study would provide
valuable insight to the government, head teachers of secondary schools,
teaching and learning approach that will improve vocational education
subjects in Abakaliki L.G.A Ebonyi
State. The findings of the study could provide the ministry of Education with
data on how secondary school head
teachers can implement the
strategies for improving teaching and learning of vocational subjects. With
investigations, the government is likely to be in a position to come up with
strategies to improve the managerial skills of head teachers in order to be
more effective in teaching and learning of vocational subjects.
1.3 Purpose of the Study.
The study meant to
investigate the strategies for improving the teaching and learning of
vocational subjects in secondary schools in Abakaliki L. G. A. Ebonyi State
Nigeria especially to
1. Determine
the influence of students interest towards the study of vocational subjects
2. Determine
the qualify of the vocational subjects and the instructions used.
3. Ascertain the availability and use of
teaching aids in teaching and
learning of vocational subjects.
4. Identify
the student and teacher factors that might inhibit the effective teaching and
learning of vocational subjects in secondary schools.
1.5 Research questions.
For the purpose of this research, the following
research questions are posed.
1. What
are the level of students interest in the study of vocational subjects.
2. What are the influence of teachers
qualification on the attitude o f
vocational subjects.
3. What
are the teaching facilities available for teaching of vocational subjects in
secondary school?
4. What
are the factors that might inhibit the effective teaching and leaning of
vocational subjects?
1.5 Scope of the study.
The study is strictely restricted to five
secondary schools in Abakaliki urban area of Ebonyi state.
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Concept and Definition of Vocational
Subjects
2.1 Vocational training are instructions
intended to equip person’s for industrial or commercial occupations. It may be
obtained-formally cither in trade schools, technical secondary school or in
on-Job training programmers or more informally by pack up the necessary skills
on the Job.
Technological development and
advancement evolved ground a sound vocational educational programmed as cited
by Otuaga Mayes (2010) in (Bulus 1991:41) vocational skills in schools is
relatively modem development.
Akaniwor (1988: 41) observed that the bed rock of any technical breaker
through is the existence of appropriate skill, ability or abilities and
competence both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in
the society is a dynamic instruction of change”? According to Bulus (1991:30) vocational
education involves the acquisition of skills and competences that can be of
help to the individual to function productively in industries and commercial
occupation. Until the 19th century such education, exept for the
professions, was provided only by apprenticeship. This situation was partly due
to the low social status associated with such instruction as opposed to a
classical curriculum which was considered “necessary for a youth with growth of
individualization during the 19th century. However, several European
countries, notably Germany, began introducing vocational training in education
in great Britain, however, opposition to vocational education persisted into
the 20th century.
Although
a few trade and junior vocational schools and technique schools were
established by local authorities before the world war II by the 19th
century, public (common) vocational schools in the united state consisted of
manual training and practical arts. These programmers were generally expanded
until 1917 when federal aid was provided to public schools for trade and
industries, therefore, vocational education, also catted career and technical
Education, prepares students for jobs and careers that are based on mostly manual
or practical activities.
According
to (Okoro, 1993). It has also been explained as the sum total of all
educational experiences systematically organized and presented by an
institution to enable the learner acquire basic productive and practical skills
(Oharisi, 2007) therefore state that vocational subject also called career and
technical Education, prepares students for jobs and careers that are based on
mostly manual or practical activities. The term does not apply to the
development of profession acquired via tertiary institutions. Vocational
education is low in theoretical or academic activities and is generally related
to related to learning a specific trade or occupation.
Vocational
education teaches procedural knowledge for auguring a skill or trade
concentrates on research, theory and abstract knowledge. Prior to the Indus
trial revolution, the apprenticeship system and the home were the principal
sources of vocational education and training. Since the society has been forced
by the decline of handwork to develop institutions vocational education. Today,
vocational education can be at the secondary or postsecondary level and can
make appreciable use of apprenticeship or mentorship. Under the British
colonial government, vocational education in Nigeria initially developed
independently of the state, with bodies such as the RSA and City & Guilds
setting examination and offering certificates in vocation Technical education
focuses on specific trade such as automobile repairs or mechanic, welding, plumbing,
electrical craftsmanship or electrician,
hair dressing tailoring and barbing etc, and has until recently been associated
with the activities of lower social class of people. As a result it attracted a
level of stigma in the past.
However, with economics advancement
and the demand for higher levels of productivity and efficiency, the place of
vocational subject has become better appreciated. The labour market has become
more specialized and nations are demanding higher levels of skills at different
levels. Government and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of
vocation education through publicly funded training organizations and
subsidized apprenticeship (Source) At the post- Secondary level, vocational
education is typically provided by polytechnics, institution of technology or
trade schools.(Source)
Vocational
education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists in
industries manufacturing, retail, tourism, information technology, Agriculture,
Cosmetics and Cottage industries etc.
According
to Igwebuike (2007) these are some vocational fields and their related
occupations, in the table below.
|
Educational
field
Agriculture
Distributive
|
Occupation
categories Agribusiness, Agric marching food processing, horticulture
Distribution and marketing of textiles foods, gore rat merchandize.
|
|
Health
Occupation
|
Nursing,
Medical equipment operators, dental assistants, medical records technicians
|
|
Home
Economic
|
Clued
care, Clothing service, clearing, Nutrition, home management.
|
|
Office
occupation
|
Date
Processing, Computer and Office machine operators, book keeping, stenographic
services, printing
|
|
Technical
and Industrial
|
Constructor
trades, building trades, manifesting mainframe and repines
|
|
Information
Technology
|
Electronies,com
Electronic, computer
programming, telephony, machine tool design.
|
2.2 REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Vocational education has played a
vital role in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Vocational education, as
documented in the National policy on Education (2004) is to give training and
impart the necessary skills to individuals who shed be self reliant.
Vocational subjects are about work
and training for work. Raymond (2007). One of the goals of the vocational
Education is to make an individual be self reliant. In this regards It will
make vocational education and training an interesting one by gearing the
students towards self reliant to discourage unemployment syndrome.
Self-reliant is one’s own efforts
and abilities (Merrian, 2006). When somebody acquires skills in any occupation
such person can establish his or her own business and even employ others. Igweh
(2008). Such person is self reliant. Bassey (2009). Declared self reliant as
that which pre-supposes the attainment and autonomy without unnecessary
resorting to begging or browning. Ed that, a self reliant individuals is one
that achieve steady supply of his needs, one that diversifies his resources to
reduce dependency on other’s assistance “thus, self-reliance emphasizes growth
and development and development in the life of the citizens, politically,
socially, economically.
Therefore, a man who is potently
self reliant will ensure an effective control of his resources over national
life for proper national development. Eg Adanuga of Elo network, a country’s
well-being depends on its economic development Nwogu, (2009). Walter Rodwey an
economist in igweh (2004). Asserted that development in human society is may
sided phenomenon which is complex and means different thinkers, Musa (1985). In
his view sees the concept of development
as an European American term through culturally based, used to characterize
the relative standard of living of the people between the highly industrialized
nations of the north and the consumer impart dependant nation of the south.
Therefore, secondary schools and
higher secondary education are important stages in the system of general
education because it is at these points that youth decide on whether to pursue
higher education, vocations education or join the workforce.
Educationist and experts have
consistently recommended that education at these stages should be given a
vocational bias to link it with be given a vocational bias to link if with the
world of employment.
In Australia, the United Kingdom and
Germany training policies are increasingly based on similar general principles.
However, in the main implementation of these principles remains specific to
each country (National center for vocational Educational Research, 2006). In
Australia the recognition of prior learning is available to individuals in the
vocation subjects under the Australian quality training framework (Josie Misko,
2006).
Wikipedia (2010) Explain that in
Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and
provided through the vocational educational training (VET) system by registered
training organizations. This system encompasses both public and private
providers in a national training framework consisting of the vocational
subjects.
In finland, vocational education
belongs to secondary education. After the nine-year comprehensive school,
almost all students for tertiary choose to go to either a lukio (high school).
Which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or a
vocational school. Vocational education is an important part of the education system in Australia, Germany,
Licabenstein and Switzer land (including the French and the Italian speaking
parts of the country) and one element of the Germany model.
In Hong Kang, vocational subjects
and learning vocational education are usually for post-secondary 3,5 and 7
students,
The Hong Kong institute of vocational
Education (IVE) provides training in nine different vocational fields, namely: Applied science, Business Admin child Education and
community services, construction Design and printing, textiles and clothing,
Hotel, service and tourism studies, information and technology, engineering and
electronic Engineering and mechanical manufacturing and industrial engineering.
INTERNATIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Normally at the end of elementary
school (at age 14) students are directed to one of three types of upper
secondary education. On academic track and two vocational tracks. Vocational
secondary schools provide four years of general education and also prepare
studies for the maturate.
Te school combined general education
with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career
orientation. At that point many student enroll in a post-secondary (VET)
programme often at the same institution, to obtain a vocational qualification,
although they may also seek entry to tertiary education.
Government should ensure that
policies on vocational subject are relevant and that they are aligned with
plans for the development of the country. Therefore, vocational education
policy has to satisfy both the school’s and governments polices.
Case study of successful vocational
education programmes in secondary schools, should be studied and presented to
the minister of Education and other members of parliament, especially those
concerned with economic development, the importance of vocational education and
the need to vocationalise the secondary school curriculum should be spelt out
dearly and concisely. The consequence of not doing so should be made plain.
A recommendation to policy markers
should advocate that it should be compulsory for all secondary students to
undertake both academic and vocational education courses. The important
advantages of secondary students leaving school with vocational and academic
education and training should be documented.
2.3 Summary of Literature Review
Ways
of improving vocational education:
(a) Teaching methods;
The day to day teaching conducted by
vocational subjects teachers needs to be reviewed and redesign. Teaching can
too easily become uninspired, mutinous and boring. The delivery of effective
teaching and learning in both theory and practical practice is a must. Ways
motivating tired teachers and encouraging them to be enthusiastic must be
explored. We believe that, vocational education method needs to revolutionize
along with the advancement of ICT. E-learning could be used as a method
enabling students to understand better on certain topics such as electric
skills. The application as electric skills. The application of multimedia interactive
teaching aids could provide the graphic illustration of the flow of
electricity.
This can be shown through cable or
video where students will be demonstrated by the steps of how to fix an
electrical bulb correctly.
(b) Infrastructure:
Consequently, there is little
incentive for teachers to teach well. Adequate vocational facilities in the
form of appropriate buildings, adequately equipped workshops, laboratories and
necessary tools should become the scaffolding of which. Successful vocational education
programmes can be mounted. A good infrastructure includes a laboratories which
is specially designed for skills related courses. The level of safety feature
is also must be at the highest standard along with good arrangement and
cleanliness. Beside that, machines and tools need to undergo excellent
periodical maintenance. A good infrastructure could improve the motivation of
students, parents and stake holders.
Resources
(c) Vocational teaching or learning resources
are often in short supply. For optional learning outcomes, vocational teachers
need adequate stationery, sufficient raw materials up-to-date text books and a
range of suitable teaching aids to deliver their courses creative teachers re
highly essential for vocational education the existing teachers in school can
be trained as vocational kill teacher as long as they have high interest in
skills related field.
(d) Funding:
Without money, effective vocational
subjects/course cannot be delivered. Most courses are expensive to deliver. It
is necessary and essential to secure funding form the government, local private
donors and overseas donors. So that effective delivery of vocational subject
can be conducted. Vocational subject requires substantial financial sources.
Nevertheless, if the school has good relationship with some related agencies or
organizations they could obtained sponsorship or financial aids for the
implementation of vocational subjects. For example, a cooperation in doing any
twinning programs a unit may be in charged of industrial relation should be set
up in school so that with outside agencies or organizations can be run smoothly
and effectively.
(e) Vocational Education Awareness; It is
surprising how little is know by the community and in many secondary schools
about the vocational possibilities.
Awareness programmes must start with
ourselves in our own country, in the educational context in which we look.
Having comprehensively informed
ourselves, we need to spread this knowledge throughout out country’s school. We
need to inform teachers, students, management and Administrative staff,
traditional and religious leader, parents, groups and mothers clubs.
The
wider community must also be informed. Community awareness programmes that
include visits to vocational schools and colleges, open days, public meetings
brochures and handouts, television and radio broadcasts, and informative
articles in some islands where electronic communications widespread. Parents
need to be convinced that vocational education offers real employment
opportunities equals to and sometimes far more appropriate for their child than
what may be available at the end of a purely academic programmes.
The good news of vocational
education need to be disseminated to parents by home visits, parents days, and
vocational days where vocational promoters and personal, including staff and
students speak about their vocational programmes, and experiences. The aim of
developing strategies to promote public awareness about their vocational
programmes/subjects is both to informs and to change people attitude towards
vocational subjects programmes.
They need to view vocational
education as an existing and positive real-world pathway for anyone who care to
start walking in that direction.
Vocational education and learning is
all about educating people and see the potential and giving the people the
enthusiasm (and sometime the courage) to take up vocational studies.
Vocational provider must also
publicly address the issue of gender equity. All vocational subjects should be
available to both male and female students. We need, for instance, to by pass
the thinking that only men should undertake plumbing and that only woman can
weave. Some times in certain countries cultural norms override gender equity and
cultural sensitivity is such situation.
(f) Industry partnership;
Vocational education subject or
courses need practice opportunities in real workplaces. Good industry
partnership are vital. Arrangements for vocational courses come alive.
Trainers
will need to liaise with industry partner to ensure. That all industry
requirements are met. These will include insurance coverage, parent waiver and
consent letters.
Arranging work placement will need a
degree of flexibility from vocational education providers and industry. It may
take the form of one or two days a week, it may involve a block of time or it
may be held during holidays, at weekends or even in the workplace personnel and
trainer.
Overall, commitments from alls take
holders, including business, industries, trainer and service providers,
parents, communities and donors, must be brokered if vocational education
programmes are to succeed and be sustained. Sustainability is the key and also
the issue.
(g) Standards;
Without a clear articulated national qualification
framework and an accreditation council to implement the framework, the
standards will not be maintained and vocational education will be weakened.
A national qualification framework
managed by a recognized accreditation council will allow order for all training
providers in terms of the value of their qualifications and the competences of
their graduate.
It will also allow employers to
validate the qualification possessed by job seekers. To assist in the
development of national standards, a taskforce on employment creation can raise
awareness about vocational education in the eyes of the country’s leaders. It
roles would include the identification of key performance indicators or monitor
the job opportunities for job seekers.
2.5 The Role of the Teacher in the practical
Application of learning for effective teaching of vocational Education courses.
Teaching is a very crucial job. So
teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students.
While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the part of the teacher, new
instructional strategies has put the teacher more of course designer,
facilitator and coach and the students more active learner.
The goal vocational education has is
to establish a sound knowledge base skill set on which students will be to
build as they, are exposed to different life experiences through the new
instructional strategies by the teacher.
Good teacher can as well manipulate
instructional strategies and translate information, good judgment, experience
and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and
pass to others (Taylor, 1998).
Will (1998) emphasized also that the
guilty of teachers is the single most important factor affecting students
achievement, and that countries which score highly on international test have
multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employs are
effective as possible in the use of learning materials and must be highly
qualified.
Therefore, new teaching
methodologies increased the importance of students self learning with the
teacher adequately performing role of:
- Content facilitator, concerned
directly with facilitating the learner’s growing understanding of the
vocational education courses content.
- Technologies,
concerned with making or helping earners makes technological choices that will
lead to the improvement of the environment available to learners.
- Designer,
concerned with designing worthwhile vocationally inclined learning tanks.
- Managers,
concerned with issue of learner practicing with the learning activities and
facilities.
- Process
facilitator, concerned with facilitating the rang of learning activities that
are supportive of students learning their vocation.
- Researcher,
concerned with engagement in production of new knowledge of relevance to the
content areas being taught in the various vocational education in the various
vocational education courses.
Also, the use of “poliformat” an
internet service which is base don creating a feature-rich learning
environment, made possible through the use of introduction of substantial
changes in the practical sessions leading to a better application of learning
in the teaching methodologies of vocational education courses.
Also,
the use of virtual classroom drill and simulators can be applied in teaching of
vocational education course in Nigeria.
2.6 Element
of Effective teaching in vocational subjects.
Figure 2 below, that was developed framework from the
improving the quality of Education for All (IQEA) research project (Hopking,
2007). This framework encompasses fair different elements of effective teaching
models or teaching skiols, teaching relationship, teaching reflection, and
teaching models. Importantly, it is only when these four elements are ins
synergy that they are able to support effective teaching. Greemer who analyzed
the factors and variables in the teaching and learning process to identify
those that could explain the differences in outcomes for comparable groups of
learner, informs us that isolated component or effective elements of individual
components do not results in strong effects on students achievement (Creemer, 1994,
p. 92)
The four components: teaching relationship, teaching
models, teaching skills and teachings reflection, were adopted as the basis for
relating with students through learning and teaching vocational education
subjects. We also drew for the effect size research which identified
consistently high correlations between learner achievement scores and classroom
processes.
From this stage, the process of analysis and the
refinement of the framework for analysis has been as interactive one. We have
set out exactly what we mean in this report by each of these essential
components an the relevance/important of each to effective vocational teaching
and learning.
Teaching
Relationships
This encompasses both the teachers commitments to their learners and
the relationships they develop with their learners.
In these observation, teachers
identified that their relationship with their learners was of critical
important to the effectiveness of their teaching and learning.
Teaching relationship’s also covers
the range of roles that a teacher can take within a session and varies betweens
high structure’, in which the teachers role is dominant, directly directing the
learning and low ‘structure’ in which learners take more control of the process
of learning. Teaching relationships refers to the relationships teacher develop
with their learners as well as learners relate to each other. The tutor-learner
relationships are identified as the most important link in learning process,
(TLRP, 2006). A meta-analysis of learner-centered teacher-relationships
confirmed the importance.
It reported that position
teacher-relationships are associated with optimal, holistic learning with above
average mena-correlations when compared with other educational innovations for cognitive
and behavioral outcomes (Cornelius-while, 2007).
TEACHING
MODELS
These models are derived form
theories about teaching. Each model can be described as a structured sequence,
which is designed to elicit a particular type of thinking or response, to
achieve a specific learning out comes. The choice of use of the appropriate
model out come (or combination of mdoels0 is influenced by the types of learning
objectives and the nature of the learner as well as other factors such as the repertoire
of teaching strategies available and skills of the teacher.
A strong body of research and
practice suggests that the quality of teaching and learning and learners
attainments can be enhanced by the use of specific models. (DFES, 2004b,
Hattie, 2009 and Marzano, 1998). To draw the distinction between teaching
strategy and teaching model the definition of a teaching model we have
used has two distinctive features.
The first distinctive features is
the nature of learning objective and outcome required and whether the learning
is related to acquiring and learning skills, procedures of knowledge or
processing information, building concepts and rules, generating and testing
hypothesis and thinking creatively or collaboration and learning together to
construct new knowledge and understand
concepts.
The second distinctive feature is
the structured sequence of steps or phases (the syntax) used to achieve that
particular type of learning of objective.
In teaching models, it is the right
linkage between the two aspects that defines a teaching model.
Strategies do not have the same
linkage and may be deployed more widely, as an essential part of a teachers
repaloire to achieve a range of learning outcome.
The term teaching model is also used
in vocational teaching and learning to describe other different concepts. If
these concepts lack the distinctive linkage between these two particular
features above, these they are not what we mean bore by a teaching model.
Teaching
skills and Strategies
In offering guidance on teaching and
learning, the vocational learning support programe state that:
There are many model and theories to
explain how learners learn. In practical term there is evidence that there are
significant differences in way that learners approach their teaching and that
hey can benefit from experiencing different approaches. An inclusive learning
environment is one where the teacher uses a range of succeed and fulfill their potential. (LSIS
Excellence Gateway, 2011b).
In other place we have found out
that we have called strategies described as approaches or methods. To avoid
confusion, we have used the following definition of teaching skills and strategies.
Teaching strategies are the tools
teacher have at their disposal to engage learners and enable learning
objectives to be met via effective
teaching and learning and teaching skills are how they select and use these
strategies.
Teaching strategies are
differentiated from teaching models by using our definition of a model as the
sequence of steps or phrases (the syntax) used to achieve particular types of
learning outcomes.
Examples
of skills and strategies observed in practice into the following three broad
categories that follow teaching and learning process. There are :
* Planning and preparation which is
- Strategies for differentiation.
* Managing delivery
- Strategies of presentation and
demonstrations
- Strategies involving technology
- Strategies for group and individuals
learning
- Strategies for reinforcing learning
- Strategies for more effective
learning
- using multiple strategies
* Assessment
- Strategies for assessing learning
Teacher
Reflection
The fourth component which is the
teacher reflection is a threefold process comprising direct experience,
analysis of believes, values of knowledge about that experience, and,
consideration of the options which should lead to action as a result of the
teachers reflection progressed against the framework of these four components it
become clear that there was one additional, distinctive feature that in part
defines vocational earning and that is the context within which it take place.
Thus a new, fifth component was
emerging to add to the framework. This is discussed further in the conclusions.
2.7 LEARNING THEORIES, LEARNING MODELS
In comparing learning theory and
learning model (Teaching theory, teaching model), learning is to be interpreted
in the farmer as a behavioural, cognitive social, etc change resulting form a
particular situation, while in the latter as a process made optimal by taking
external condition into consideration.
Whereas learning theories are
primarily micro-level (describing the results of short term and elementary
activities), are based on organized hypothesis and delay with learning in
general, learning models are micro-level (describing the results of long-term
activities) and focus in concentrate terms on a practical aspects for example
on the characteristics of classroom learning. The various psychological
directions hold different views on learning, on rather, they emphasis or
appreciate different essentials of it.
These theories have undergone
significant development during the past decades and still co-exit. Should any
of the paradigms be considered. It is true of each that learning is treated in
general and interpreted as a relatively lasting change in behaviour, and it
result is achieve thought practice. So learning is interpreted as a change in
associations between images by the representatives as associations psychology
in behaviour by those of behaviournism, in mental processes by those of cognitivism,
in personality development by those of psychoanalysis, and in incentives of the
personality by those of phenomenology therefore learning has no outcome and
this is change itself.
According to carol, in her Book
model of school learning. Teachers college record, vol. 64 (1963, pp. 723-733.
learning achievement depends on existing knowledge, general learning abilities
(the ability of self regulated learning) the degree of comprehension (general,
nllelligent verbal skills) several environment factors (e.g family friends) the
quality of instruction (the selection of a appropriate method and means, how
organized the curriculum is) as well as effective and cognitive dispositions
(e.g interest, motivation, level of standards, self-image). The learning
achievement is best shown by the pace (speed) and quality (failoure rate)
learning and the durability of knowledge 9recalability, modifiability). The
efficiency of learning is to be expressed by a ratio where time allotted to
learning is divided by time planned for acquisition.
The former comprises the syllabus
based classroom time planned by the teacher and the home learning line need
determined by the talents of the student. In the Late 1990s, Huitt develop
carrolls model.
In his transactional model, time
allotted to learning is dependent on the line of acquiring the material a
measured during checking as well as of active participation in the learning
process, together with the time spent on the successful completion of allotted
task.
According the Bloom’s model learning
achievement is substantially influenced by four factors, namely the existing
knowledge of the student, their level of motivation, the duration of the
teaching learning process and the quality of instruction.
Time need as a factor appears here,
too, originating primarily in the existing knowledge and learning differences
of the individual.
That
is why the other three factors are to be selected in such a way as to ensure
the safe acquisition of the material in each and every students case, in other
worlds, time allotted to learning should at least coincide with that needed for
acquisition.
Bloom
and Carrollis teaching-learning models led the way to the model of mastery
learning.
2.8 LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNING STYLES
The decisively significant
corrective elements of model are the quality teaching and learning strategies
(Suitability to objective and syllabus), time to be allotted to learning (in
class and at home) and abilities related to the comprehension of the syllabus.
The highest level of learning
strategies is the self-regulated learning strategy, when the student,
surmounting his own cognitive and effective characteristics, processes the
material by choosing the learning methods and means most suited to the
requirements. The teachers direct guidance in this cannot apparently be
dispensed with in the beginning.
Teaching,
learning and self-regulated (meta-learning) strategies are inspirable and
parallel variables of the educational process. Their significant, dominance and
mutual effect depend on the educational objectives, the content specialties of
the syllabus, the didactic tasks to be solved as well as age group
characteristics of the students, as show in figure 3.
The
interpretation of teaching and learning strategy
The dominance of teaching strategies is typical of teacher centered, that of
learning strategies is of students-centered situation of education,
respectively, teaching learning, strategies the selection of the combination of
method form means is primarily the teacher’s task and in the case of
self-regulated learning the student is capable of it.
The teacher obviously make the
selection of the teaching and learning methods, means and forms most suited to
processing the syllabus in a way that contributes to the development of the
student’s self-regulated learning strategy as well. Syllabus in a way that
contributes to the development of the student’s self-regulated learning
strategy as well.
A common feature of theories of
learning style is that students are classified according to their cognitive
characteristics and learning strategies along one-or multi-dimensional
bipolar(usually cognitive) scales.
Conclusion as to efficient learning
styles, forms and means of the students may be drawn form the preferred
strategies related to learning style. Teaching strategies which produce the
most preferred learning strategies can also be specified, and these in turns
serve as a starting point for designing the learning strategies.
2.9 THE PROSPECTS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN
NIGERIA
Vocational education and job
training has been an integral part of national development strategies in many
societies because of the impact on human resources development, productivity
and economic grow Dike (2007). Nigerians do not seen to accord. Vocational the
attention It deserve despite its proven contributions in other nations.
Ibenneme (2007) it is important to
observe that UNESCO and ILO (2002) comprehend vocational educational to be in
the following ways;
1. An instrument for promoting a perfect
suitable sustainable development amongst others. Indeed every nation,
especially developing countries are making efforts to develop industrially, economically
and technically. It is of vital importance to note that any kind of developmental
effort or initiatives requires human capital amongst others.
The development of human capital
requires necessarily skilled human capital and appropriate skills, right
attitude and good knowledge of retrieving and processing by utilizing national
resources.
The artisans, craftsman,
technicians, and technologies are accurately trained, they will fit well in
small scale enterprises, industries, colleges, and universities. (Igweh, 2008).
There will be a lasting less
depended of foreign technical personnel in our cottage and main industries.
Indigenous technology will be
encouraged. There will be adequate manpower to handle road maintenance,
buildings, electricity and electrification mechanical works, and agriculture
and computer services.
In this view or regard, production
capacity will be increased while the import duties will be decreased.
2. It is a means of preparing the youths
for occupational skills and for effective participation.
3. It is an aspect of long term learning
and preparation for responsible citizen.
2.10 CHALLENGES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN
NIGERIA
According to dike (2005), while the
number of vocational school has greatly increased in the developed countries
since 1990 and vocational has continued to thieve in many societies, Nigeria
has neglected this aspect of Education.
Consequently, the society lacks
skilled technicians, bricklayers, carpenters and painters and auto-mechanics,
laboratory and pharmacy technicians, electrical/electronics technician, food
processors and horticulturist and skilled vocational nurses, etc.
The hospital are no longer a place
where people go to get ailments treated, but a place they go and die.
The situations getting out of hand
as a degree awarding institution will ill equipped infrastructure and aids
continues to thrive in the land. So bad is the rat race that even old infrastructure
institution that used to train studies in practical vocations are now competing
to be accredited as degree awarding instruction. The middle and lower cadre
technical skills that are very badly needed for national development of fast
disappearing as a result.
In contrast, in Germany today,
according to Makanjuola, (2009), the governments focus on rebuilding their
manpower starting from the proportion of skilled technicians and workers to
those with university degrees is 4 to 1.
In Nigeria practically every
students seeks a university degree, even if it means not acquiring any skills
or any Job prospects for that matter. It is not clear whether, at the federal
or state level, we have a framework or plan to reverse this unfortunate trend.
It is not clear what statistics are
available in Nigeria with respect to computer literacy and education, but like
all statistics concerning the nation, whatever is available may not be
positive.
Global advancement is today driven
by information technology. To quote Oni, (2007), a developing nation needs
efficient services of technicians, Engr. And technologist who have received
formal training from vocational institutions, Akanbi (1994) notes that in
businesses, banking customer services records are stored in computers like
wise, banking operations have gone electronic and they utilize on-line, real
lime access and updating methods many vocational enterprises in developed
nations like United states, Britain, Germany, France and others now employ the
use of compactor packages and software.
In other to work in an industrial nation
vocational professionals clearly need to be computer literate”. Many vocational
personnel are not catching up with global trends. In many vocational-teaching
institutions in Nigeria today, technicians, engineers, and technologists are of
trained to use computer for business purpose.
The attitude of vocational education
teachers to innovation is poor. In a study investigating the computer attitudes
of teacher educator (Jegede and Owolobi, 2005), it was found that vocational
education teachers showed the least positive attitudes about computer.
Lamentably, these teachers are the
very ones saddled with the task of training the junior secondary school
teachers. The study seems to suggest that vocational education in Nigeria is
particularly disadvantaged in that the curriculum still emphasizes manual
traditional skills over the use of computer technology.
The impression was created by early
colonial educators that the learning of vocational subjects was for dropouts
and mentally handicapped children. The notion has created a certain negative
attitude in both students and parents towards vocational education up till now.
Many schools, vocational education/institutions and even polytechnics and
universities in Nigeria are too poorly equipped to deliver quality teaching and
learning. There appears to be a drive to increase students intake without a
commiserate increase in quality of teaching.
Underlying all the challenges
enumerated above is the cracker work called corruption, that is the main reason
why all good initiative fail in Nigeria. The country is ranked top among the
most corrupt nations of the earth. Corruption continues to degrade our national
values, destroy good initiatives and makes progress a most impossible. Until a
drastic blow in dealt to corruption in the public and private sector nothing of
great national value should be expected in Nigeria.
Corruption
and poor funding have denied many institutions in Nigeria the opportunity to
grow and match their counterparts in other parts of the world.
To quate Oharisis (2007), “”teaching
of vocational education is capital intensive”. The lack of funds limited the
amount of technical and industrial exposure that trainees can acquire in the
course of learning.
Faulty
education and government policies are also big issue in Nigeria. The Nigerian
education system had and is still
witnessing changes in educational system.
Some of the challenges facing
vocational education in Nigeria are numerous, they are as follow:
- poor elaboration of the practical
aspects of vocational education as most tertiary institutions in Nigeria
charged with the responsilbilities to teach vocational education courses today
are poorly equipped with cachinnates and relevant tools.
- Lack of skilled manpower
- Poor remuneration of vocational
education
- Lack of follow-up and continuity in
government policy.
- Scarcity of vocational teaching
teachers.
- Lack of adequate training facilities
and modern equipment.
- Lack
of entrepreneurship education in vocational education training.