CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
POVERTY: CONCEPTUAL ISSUES
Poverty according to D. Olu Aja
Kaiye et al (1999) in the work, conceptual and methodological issues in poverty
Alleviation is defined as “a living condition in which an entity is faced with
economic, social, political, cultural and environmental deprivations”.
In the view of World Bank (1970),
“poverty is the inability of certain persons to attain a minimum standards of
living.
In the same view, Aluko (1975)
defines poverty as “lack of basic
necessities of life”. That is, basically not having enough to eat, a high rate
of infant mortality, low life expectancy, low educational opportunities, poor
water, unemployment, inadequate health care and unfit housing.
However, poverty can no longer be
defined in trans of income alone because of its complexity. According to UNDP,
poverty is distinguished between income poverty and human poverty. Income
poverty, according to UNDP occurs when the income level of an individual falls
below a nationally defined poverty line.
Human poverty by UNDP is seen as
denial or deprivation of opportunities and choices that would enable an
individual to lead a long health creative life and to enjoy a decent standard
of living, freedom, dignity, self-respect and respect for others.
To measure Human poverty, UNDP
proposed three indices, the first relates to an individuals vulnerability to
death at a relatively early age and is measured by the percentage of the
population expectant to die before the age of 40; the second relates to an
individuals exclusion from the world of reading and communication and is
measured by the percentage of adult who are illiterates; the third index
relates to the standard of living and is measured by the percentage of people
with access to health services, employment, safe water and the percentage of
malnourished children less than 5 years old. Mbogurje (2004).
Also, in the view of Balogun (1993)
of Economic reforms and National question, “poverty is defined as a situation
where a population or section of the population is able to meet only its bare
subsistence essential of food, clothing and shelter in order to maintain
minimum standard of living”. In order to understand the concept well, this
definition requires that a yardstick be set which can be used to determine who
is poor and who is not. This led to the
emergence of the concept of poverty line based on the level of per capita
income or consumption of individuals or households within a region or country,
which means the cut-off living standard level below which a person is
classified as poor and counting the people whose income is below the line.
For example, in 1990, world
development Report used upper poverty line of U.S dollar 370 per capita as a
cut-off for absolute poverty. People whose consumption levels fall below U.S
dollar 275 are very poor.
Many analysts believed that income
and consumption level say very little about the standard of living. This is the
reason why World Development Report stressed to include other factors such as
health, life expectance, access to clean water and education etc.
According to Engelama and Bamidele
(1997) as quoted in Onah, (2006) see poverty as ‘a state of an individual not
being able to cater adequately for his/her basic needs of life like food,
clothing and shelter……… meeting social and economic objectives, lacks gainful
employment, skills, assets and self-esteem, education, health, portable water
and sanitation, which reduces the opportunity of advancing his/her well being
to the limit of his/her capability”.
In reaction to the above, Onah
(2006) explains that poverty is not only the inability of individuals to afford
the above basic needs of life, but reduces the strength and prestige of such
individuals to participate in any given activity in the society.
Explaining further, Onah viewed
poverty in Nigeria
as having deprived a good number of her citizens the prestige of citizenship.
For
example, the less privileged, unemployed, and landless peasants are not given
access to bank facilities as a result of the collateral barrier, which has been
placed above their affordable capability.
However, basic education, good
water, good environment and healthcare have been made for a class of poverty
who are within the enclave of poverty are not opportuned to afford them. This
circumstances keep on increasing the poverty scope and creates more inability
to the Nigerian poor citizenries.
According to Nnoli (1989), poverty
is defined as a section of the population, which has been crushed by the power
of money. He divided the society into two; the bourgeoisie and the peasants. He
described the bourgeoisie as the rich people who owned and control the means of
production and therefore enjoy the power of money and the peasants as the poor
ones in the society who do not control or own the means of production and hence
they are the victims of the of the power of money.
Fields (1994:3) holds that “poverty
is the inability of an individual or family to command sufficient resources to
satisfy their basic needs”.
In the same vein, Chambers (1995)
sees poverty “as the lack of physical necessities such as assets and income”.
World Bank 1996, as quoted in Onah
(2006:71) says that ‘the poor earn below the international measurement of one
U.S Dollar per day, which affects their purchasing power to acquire their basic
needs”.
Onah (2006:71) quoted Achor when he
contends that the poor lack cash income that is sufficient to cover their
minimum standard of living. And that poverty is not only a situation of
standard of living, but also a state of severe deprivation in the society.
According to Amuguo (2003:1)
“poverty is the deprivation of elements necessary for human survival”.
These
elements include clean water, food, shelter, health and self-dignity.
Deprivation of self-dignity is simply the denial of individual liberty, natural
rights, political liberty, civil liberty and property. In situations where
these elements are far fetched, the society is left with nothing but “poverty and
underdevelopment”.
2.2
THE DEPENDENCY THEORY
Dependency theory first emerged in
the 1950s as advocated by RAUL PREBISCH (1901-1986), an Argentine economists
whose research found that the wealth of poor nations tended to decrease when
the wealth of rich nations increased. Some proponents of dependency theory
includes; Rual Prebisch, Theotonio Dos Santos, Paul A. Baran, Andre Gunder
Frank and Fernando Cardozo etc.
Alapiki (2004) argues that
“dependency refers to a situation where one or several economies depend on
another, and to that extent, the development of the dependent economy is
controlled by the one it depends on”.
Dos Santos (1970:60), in his article titled “The
structure of Dependence”, defined ‘dependence’ as “a situation in which the
economy of certain countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of
another economy to which the former is subjected”.
Santos explained further, that, it
is the relation of interdependence between two or more economies, between these
countries in question and World Trade assumes the forms of dependence when some
countries (the dominant ones) can expand or can be self-sustaining, while other
countries (the dependent ones) can do this only as a reflection of that
expansion, which can have either a positive or negative effect on their
immediate development.
The term Dependency would be viewed
from the point of views of the relationship between developed and
underdeveloped countries.
The United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America (ECLA) founded in 1948 in Santiago, Chile, states
that “the world is divided into centre (first world-that is, the developed
industrialized North) and the periphery (the underdeveloped Agricultural
South)”. The relationship between these
divisions is determined by the structure of the world economy.
The economic activity of the third
world countries is based on primary export production. This situation has
generated unequal exchange to the advantage of the centre and to the
disadvantage of the periphery. It has
resulted in the balance of payment crisis with the periphery having to export
more in order to maintain the same level of manufactured import.
In the light of ECLA’s view of
dependency, the centre maintained the periphery in a state of underdevelopment
for purpose of super exploitation. Underdevelopment was not an original or
inherent condition, rather it was determined outcome of the historical relationship
between dominant and subordinate states. As underdevelopment was a product of
capitalist development, it would end when the capitalist system itself
collapsed. (Frank, 1975).
2.3
NATURE OF DEPENDENCY
The nature of dependency can be conceived in diverse
forms.
According to Dos Santos, dependence
historically can be identified and distinguished in three forms, thus; colonial
dependence, financial industrial dependence and technological industrial
dependence etc.
COLONIAL DEPENDENCE: This
form of dependence emerged in trade export in nature in which commercial and
financial capital in alliance with colonialist state dominated the relations of
the Europeans and the colonies, by mans of trade, monopolies of land, mines and
power in the colonial countries.
FINANCIAL INDUSTRIAL DEPENDENCE: This form consolidated at the end of the 19th
century, characterized by domination of big capital in the hegemonic centres,
and its expansion abroad through investment in the production of raw material
and agricultural products for consumption in the hegemonic centres. A
production structure grew up in the dependent countries devoted to the export
of these products……………… producing “foreign-oriented development” (or what Amin
calls extroverted, or outward looking structures).
TECHNOLOGICAL INDUSTRIAL DEPENDENCE: This new type of dependence was consolidated in the
post world war II period based on Multinational Corporations MNCs) which began
to invest in industries geared towards internal market of the underdeveloped
countries.
Thus, each of these forms of
dependence corresponds to a situation which condition not only the
international relation of these countries but also their internal structures in
such areas as orientation of production, the forms of capital accumulation, the
reproduction of the economy and simultaneously their social and political
structures.
2.4
CAUSES OF POVERTY IN DEPENDENT SOCIETIES
COLONIALISM: According to Onah (2006:76) “Nigeria gained
her independence on October
1st, 1960. The years of colonialism brought some set
back in Nigeria.
The colonial masters built and structured Nigerian economy to facilitate the
expropriation of her resources for British economic growth and development,
thereby leaving Nigeria with poverty and dependency……….. the resources for the
local industries that should have been used to empower the citizenry
through employment opportunities are now
wasted overseas.
GLOBALIZATION AND THE WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATION: Liberalization policies have been noted as modern day
colonialism causing the poverty of the third world countries. Some writers and
scholars have suggested that Nigeria should boycott the WTO agreement, because
the treaty leads to goods being dumped in the country, leading to the closure
of local industries. The will increase unemployment and poverty level of
Nigerian citizenries as they depend on import and proceeds from the nation’s
oil for their survival.
PREJUDICE AND NEPOTISM: These affect peoples ability to secure employment and
earn a living. Entrenched tribal prejudices and nepotism sometimes determine a
person’s chances of securing employment in Nigeria.
The issue of “state of origin”
prerequisite for securing employment in the states and local government areas
in Nigeria is a case in point. Often, those who relocate to states other than
their ‘state of origin’ are being treated as non-indigenes.
Consequently, those in places of
authority hire their own people, irrespective of their qualification (Mans
field 1977), thereby creating wider road for poverty in Nigeria.
STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP)
According to Onah, (2006;77) Nigeria’s
application of SAP automatically brought about reduction in expenditure on
social and public goods in the name of servicing other sectors. Nigeria was
tied to opening her economy and being primary commodity exporters in such a way
that Nigeria finally found herself unable to compete favourably with other
nations.
The SAP brought devaluation of
naira, inflation, reduction in workers wage, redundancy and unemployment, which
climaxed to low standard of living and poverty.
SAP made Nigeria to be only
exporters of raw materials at cheap rate to multinational and other states
including importers of finished goods. This has increased poverty and dependency
in Nigeria.
MILITARY RULE:
Military incursion into Nigerian
politics soon after the independence under the disguise of correcting the
abnormalies of the civilian regimes saw the introduction of undemocratic
governance and heightening of poverty in Nigeria.
However, the military used several
instruments to increase poverty in Nigeria. Among which are looting of public
treasury at the expense of the masses and the neglect of poverty alleviation
programmes.
WEAK GOVERNANCE
Weak governance (including corruption) is believed to
have contributed significantly to poverty in Nigeria. Governance problems are
widely thought to have been among the major reasons why past poverty
alleviation programmes had little effect (National Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategy-NEEDS).
Onah (2006:80) gave support to this
when he said that “indeed, poor leadership of various civilian governments in
Nigeria contributed to poverty in Nigeria”.
Achebe (1983) also stated clearly
that “the trouble with Nigeria is purely the problem of leadership.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
Empirical evidence shows that poverty and
environmental degradation are inextricably linked in Nigeria because, about 75 percent
of rural people depend on natural resources for their livelihood.
Environmental degradation reduces
opportunities for poor people to earn sustainable incomes. Left with no other
viable option, they engage in extractive activities, contributing to the
vicious cycle of poverty and environmental degradation. NEEDs (2005).
SOCIAL CONFLICT
The economic and social dislocations
caused by internal conflicts have negatively affected the economic well-being
of individuals and businessmen in various ways. The occurrence-and in several
cases reocurrence-of social conflicts in various localities of Nigeria has
increased poverty, not only in areas directly affected by the conflict but also
in areas affected by inflows of internally displaced people, (NEEDS).
According to state Economic
Empowerment and Development Strategy- SEEDS on Ebonyi State, after a workshop
on poverty Reduction Strategy, the participants identified the following as the
causes of poverty in Ebonyi State;-
EXCLUSION OF MAJOR STAKEHOLDER
The participants believed that
development plans, policies and strategies without consultation with the
different stakeholders often lead to failure of these plans, policies and
strategies. Plans and policies made without the necessary consultations often
did not reflect knowledge of local environment and so ran the risk of focusing on
the wrong issues.
Secondly, non-involvement of
stakeholders often lead to lack of understanding of the objectives of the
project and consequently to very low levels of ownership and identification.
The participants of the workshop
also believed that it was not enough to involve stakeholders in planning only
but also in implementation. In their understanding, exclusion of stakeholders from implementation often resulted
in lack of sustainability.
LACK OF SERVICE DELIVERY ORIENTATION AND
CAPACITY IN GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
It was identified that many government agencies lacked
capacity to deliver services. Various possible reasons were advanced for this.
In the first place, there had been considerable determination in the
professionalism of the public service due to many years of abuse and neglect.
Institutions were by-passed, many servants did not receive regular training and
salaries were often owed in arreas.
Also, appointments to some critical
offices were solely based on political expediency with no consideration as
regards to the capacity of the appointees to perform the job effectively.
WASTE AND DUPLICATION OF RESOURCES
Participants in the workshop also identified wastage
as well as duplication of resources, as another contributory factor to the
failure of government plans and non-consideration of existing structures that
could be used to deliver the programmes.
Existing structures they identified
include, other state government agencies, agencies of the federal and local
government, as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community based
organizations and business organizations.
2.5
TYPES OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA
Successive governments have tried to address some of
the problems of poverty, through the enunciation of poverty related programmes.
Whether these programmes have succeeded in either alleviating poverty or not is
a moot point.
Suffice it to say, however, that the
first of such programmes called, “Operation Feed the Nation” (OFN) was
enunciated in 1979 by Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo. The programme had the specific
focus of increasing food production on the premise that availability of cheap
food will mean higher nutrition level and invariably lead to national growth
and development. OFN lasted until Shehu Shagari’s government took over in 1979.
Shagari (1979-1983) shared almost
the same poverty reduction idea with his predecessor. He came up with his own
pet project named “the Green Revolution”, which also emphasised food
production.
It must be stated through that lack
of continuity and shift in approach trailed poverty alleviation programmes
since the ouster of Shagari from power in 1983. Each subsequent military
administration came with a different idea or no idea at all. Poverty reduction
programmes become more ‘regime specific’ because there was hardly any
continuity with those initiated by previous governments.
The military regime of Gen. Muhammed
Buhari (1983-1985) did not have a specific poverty alleviation programme as it
clearly focused on fighting indiscipline and corruption.
Gen. Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)
is known to be one Head of State that introduced a welter of poverty
alleviation programmes. These include the “Peoples bank” which sought to
provide loans to prospective entrepreneurs on soft terms and without stringent
requirements of collaterals. It also regulated to an extent the activities of
“community bank” that also sprouted as adjuncts of the Peoples Bank and as
sources of cheap funds for communities and their members.
Another programme was the
Directorate of Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) which sought to open
rural areas via construction of feeder roads and provision of basic amenities
that would turn them into production centres for the national economy.
Its premise was just not to open the
rural areas, but the hinterland, which ordinarily would not have been
accessible. It also aimed at promoting rural employment based on the assumption
that if rural infrastructure, such as electricity, was available in the
villages, many welders, for example, would operate from there, instead of
scrambling for spaces in congested urban centres.
Another programme that tried to
head-off the scourge of poverty by targeting Agricultural sector was the
“Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA). The Authority was
intended to reduce the prevalence of subsistence agriculture in the country and
in its place infuse large scale commercial farming by assisting farmers with
inputs and developing land for them to the point of planting, at subsidized
rates.
While all these programmes collapsed
at one point or the other, nevertheless, at least one of these programmes
enunciated by the Babangida regime-the National Directorate of employment
(NDE)-has had a 17-year staying power up till date.
By its mandate, NDE was to design
and implement programmes to combat mass unemployment and articulate policies
aimed at developing work programmes with labour intensive potentials. From its
programmes and its staying power, this was a scheme that could be adjudged as
the most successful of Babangida poverty alleviation policies.
The regime of Late Gen. Sani Abacha
(1993-1998) was known as the midwife of the Family Economic Advancement
Programme (FEAP) in Nigeria’s quest for a way out of debilitating poverty, as
this was the period that marked Nigeria’s relapse into the global bracket of 25
poorest nations.
Significantly, FEAP existed for
about two years (1998-2000) during which it received funding to the tune of
N7billion out of which about N3.3billion was disbursed as loans to about 21,000
cooperative societies nationwide that were production oriented. Such projects
targeted for assistance include poultry production, garri making, soap making
and animal husbandry.
Tacking into cognizance of all
poverty alleviation programmes enunciated over the years in the country, it
must be recalled that spouses of Head of State also joined in the fray with
novel programmes that not only elevated the status of these first ladies but
also focused on issues of poverty, using state funds.
Most noticeable were the Better life
for Rural women heralded by Mrs. Mariam Babangida and Mrs. Mariam Sani Abacha’s
family support programme (FSP). These programmes also tried to introduce a
gender element into anti-poverty programmes, acting on the assumption that
women needed special treatment in the light of their immense contributions to
the national economy, both as small-scale entrepreneurs and home keepers.
The regime of Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo introduced Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP) in 2006 but later
changed to National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP)-a central
coordination point for all anti-poverty efforts from the local government level
to the national level by which schemes would be executed with the sole purpose
of eradicating absolute poverty.
Such schemes already identified
include: Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES, Rural Infrastructures Development
Scheme (RIDS), Social Welfare Services Scheme (SOWESS) and National Resources
Development and Conservation Scheme (NRDCS) etc.
On the whole, these schemes would
spearhead the governments ambitious programmes of eradicating absolute
poverty.
2.6
EFFECTS OF POVERTY ON DEPENDENT SOCIETIES
Perhaps, due to the complexity and corrosive effects
of poverty on humanity many journals, articles and books have tackled the issue
of poverty.
Poverty leads to corruption,
disruption of family relations and social life as well as rise in crime rate,
among other vices.
Poverty is degrading to human beings
and the life of those afflicted by it, is comparatively miserable and brief.
Political instability and national
insecurity are other negative effects of poverty. According to Onah, (2006:77)
“poverty as a state of deprivation makes the deprived to be vulnerable and
violent in nature”.
Poverty increases illiteracy and
poor performance of political leaders. It deprived the poor electorates of
having basic education, since they are not educated, it becomes difficult to
impact such democratic values as freedom of choice of candidates, freedom of
speech, value and respect for the rights of others, peaceful co-existence etc,
on them.
Another negative effect of poverty
is its social impact on the poor masses. The exposure of the poor to
difficulties makes them vulnerable to criminal behaviour/acts. The unemployed
and underemployed always indulge in criminal activities sometimes to enable
them afford their basic needs.
Onah (2006;99) has it that “of
recent, a good number of Nigerian young girls were repatriated from Europe on account of prostitution, is as a result of
poverty.
The implication of this act, not
only impacts negatively on Nigerian health record, but also gives bad signal to
foreign communities on the state of poverty and health in Nigeria”.
High level poverty could lead to
brain-drain. This entails the emigration of most educated elite to rich
countries, where they can enjoy a high standard of living.
The poverty of a nation can also
lead to human trafficking, prostitution and the spread of HIV/AIDS, child
labour and abuse of human and civil rights. (Guardian Online, June 24, 2002).
It also affects one’s disposition to
participate in community affairs, inter-personal trust and self-satisfaction.
It has been noted that deprivation of elementary capabilities can be reflected
on premature mortality, significant undernourishment (especially on children),
persistent mobility and illiteracy among other problems.
2.7
CONSEQUENCES OF DEPENDENCY
The consequences of dependency on the dependent societies
are as follows:
Dependency leads to surplus transfer
of primary products through trade. The Dependent states exports more of its
primary products, so as to maintain the same level of manufactured imports from
the metropolitan states. This situation as well occasion unequal exchange in
their trade relationship.
Secondly, it subjects less developed
countries to manipulations of the advanced countries and international
organizations such as World Trade Organizations (WTO), International monetary
Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, etc.
Dependency as well leads to high
debt crisis which remains the Achille’s heels of the developing countries.
It brings about the use of imported
strategies to address the developmental woes of the developing countries such as
privatization, devaluation, among others.
2.8
NATIONAL POVERTY ERADICATION PROGRAMMES (NAPEP) IN EBONYI STATE:
CASES AND ISSUES
Prior to the establishment of NAPEP
in the year 2000, it had two mandates which it was enunciated to deliver, thus;
“to multi-sectorally coordinate and monitor all poverty Eradication efforts in Nigeria, and to
extend specific intervention programmes and projects on critical and sensitive
sectors of the economy”.
To ensure that NAPEP achieves its
mandate, six multi-sectoral schemes were identified, thus; the Capacity
Enhancement Scheme (CES), Community Enlightenment and Sensitization Scheme
(COMESS), Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES), Rural Infrastructures Development
Scheme (RIDS), Social Welfare Service Scheme (SOWESS), and Natural Resources
Development and Conservation Scheme (NRDCS), etc.
However, going by the cases and
issues of NAPEP in Ebonyi State as a partaker in NAPEP, two schemes will be
treated, thus; the Capacity Enhancement Scheme (CES) and the Social Welfare Service
Scheme (SOWESS).
The Capacity Enhancement Scheme
(CES). This scheme is designed for people who have basic skills, but need
additional skills and resources to be gainfully employed and ensure sustainable
wealth creation. The CES is implemented through the following:
KEKE
NEEP, Micro-Credit Programme, Resource Centres, Demonstration Farms Network and Garbage Trucks and Farm
Tractors.
Going by the issue of KEKE-NAPEP
allocation in Ebonyi
State, it can be said to
have been politicized. This is in connection with the statement made by the
NAPEP secretary Ebonyi
State, Mrs. Christiana
Uba, in a workshop on Millenium Development Goals (MDG’s early this year.
Mrs. Uba stated that “the state did
not benefit from the second phase of the KEKE-NAPEP programme. She told
participants in a workshop on millenium Development Goals (MDG’s) that the
state did not benefit because the 35 tricycle received during the first phase
were used for political compensation”. She further said that the state lost its
quota in phase two because of an outstanding debt of N3.3million of phase one.
(The
Tide Newspaper, March 20th,
2008).
Social Welfare Service Schemes
(SOWESS) is designed to address the issues related to the provision of needed
core social and welfare services under the following programmes:
Farmers Empowerment Programme (FEP)
special Education Programme (SEP), Primary Healthcare Programme (PHP), and
Social Services Programme (SSP). Etc.
Going by the issue of Farmers
Empowerment Programme (FEP) in Ebonyi
State, it can be seen as
a total failure and to a large extent politicized. The programme can be seen as
a cream project only designed to compensate party loyalists at the expanse of
the target group (the peasant rural farmers).
Though NAPEP in Ebonyi State
may have some acclaimed success stories, like the N4million loan remitted to
the Amoji Nguzu Farmers cooperative society and eleven other cooperative
societies located at Nguzu Edda in Ebonyi
State, to cultivate
Cassava. But the fact still remains that, those peasant farmers whom the
project was intended for could not benefit from such programme due to some
obvious political reasons.
Another instance of the politicized
farmers Empowerment Programmes(FEP) NAPEP in Ebonyi State,
is the Enyigba Rice Farm owned by the “Alibaruttu farmers cooperative society”,
located at Enyigba in Abakaliki, capital of Ebonyi State.
It is of a fact that such
cooperative society exists in Enyigba area of Abakaliki which may involve the
peasant farmers but the fund or loan per se is being highjacked by some
powerful groups among the cooperative society to the detriment of the target
group.
These among other reasons can be
adduced as being responsible for the poor performance of the activities of
NAPEP in Ebonyi State.
2.9
GAP IN KNOWLEDGE
Having gone through some of the
literature on poverty and poverty Alleviation Programmes in dependents
societies using the Nigerian experience, it is pertinent to highlight some
areas in which the researcher feels that there is a gap in knowledge in
addressing poverty issues in Nigeria.
The government should see our
dependents nature as the cause of poverty in our polity. Until the issue of our
dependency is addressed, every effort by government towards alleviating poverty
will make no head-way.
Secondly, these poverty alleviation
programmes were mostly not designed to alleviate poverty. This reveals the
elite nature of poverty Alleviation programme in Nigeria emanating from an
all-knowing perception of the ruling class (exploiters) and devoid of inputs
from the poor themselves. Hence the position in Marxism that the ruling ideas
in society are the ideas of the ruling class.
Moreso, the poverty alleviation
programmes suffer political interference. This notion can be seen in areas
where several government policies on poverty alleviation are not duely
accomplished before the tenure of such regime elapses.
However, the programme lack clearly
defined policy framework with proper guidelines for poverty alleviation. The
government of Ebonyi
State per se should look
into some states where these programmes have been a success and develop,
without seeing it as business-as-usual.
The researcher therefore, intend to
evaluate the efficiency or veracity of poverty alleviation programme in
dependent societies using the Nigeria experience and a case study of National
poverty Eradication programme (NAPEP) in Ebonyi state.
REFERENCES
Alapiki, A.A (ed) (2005); The Political Economy of
Globalization: port Harcourt;
Amethyst and Colleagues Publishers.
Amoguo, A. (2003); The poverty problem; will Nigeria ever
get it right London;
Libertarian Alliance.
Ajakaiye, D. O. et al (1999); Conceptual and
Methodological issues in poverty Alleviation. Ibadan; Spectrum Books Ltd.
Central Bank of Nigeria and World Bank (1999);
Nigeria Development Projects; poverty Assessment and Alleviation Study, March,
8.
Dos Santos,
T. (1970); The Structure of Dependency. USA; American Economic Review.
Ekong, E. (1991); Rural Development and the
persistence of poverty in Nigeria Uyo; University of Cross River
State Press.
Egwu, O.I (2008); Issues in third world and
Dependency; Abakaliki; Sky-Rock printing and publishing.
Frank, A.G. (1967); Capitalism and underdevelopment in
Latin America: New York.
National Planning Commission (2004); National Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategies (NEEDS) Abuja.
National Planning Commission (2004); State Economic
Empowerment and Development Strategies (SEEDS), Ebonyi State.
Olaitan, S.O et al (2008); Poverty and poverty
Alleviation initiatives in Nigeria;
Nsukka; Nigerian Educational Research Association.
Onah, F.O. (2006); Managing Public Programmes and
Projects; Nsukka; Great AP express publishers Ltd.
Townsend, P. (1992); “The meaning of poverty”, The
British journal of sociology Vol.2, No.2.
The Guardian Online (2002); ‘Nigerians Among the
poorest people in common wealth, March, 17th.
The Guardian Online (2002); “The horors of human
trafficking, June 24.
The Guardian Online (2002); “UNDP report ranks Nigeria 26th
poorest country”, July 26.
The United Nations Development programmes and poverty
Eradication for sustainable livelihood; see, WWW. Onusida-aoc. Org/eng/
publications/poverty.Htm.
The Tide Online (2008), “why Ebonyi missed KEKE NAPEP
second phase,” March 20,
2008. w.w.w. Nigeria
first. Org.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The discussion of this section is based on the data
elicited from the respondents through the questionnaire which was a reflection
of the research questions and hypothesis as well.
From question 1 of the analysed data
of chapter four, it can be adduced that grater percentage of Ebonyians are
aware of an existing poverty alleviation programme in their state.
From question 2 of the
questionnaire, it is evident that majority of the respondents identified, the
National poverty Eradication programme (NAPEP) as the type of poverty
alleviation programme existing in Ebonyi State as at the time of this research
which is by June 2008.
Question 3 of the questionnaire,
revealed that greater number of Ebonyians gave their support to the programme
at its inception.
From question 4, it can be adduced
that only few Ebonyians have benefited from the programme, while the majority
of the poor masses are left in abject poverty.
From question 5, it revealed that
those who benefited from the programme experienced inconsistency in the
acclaimed benefits. This as well revealed that the programme (NAPEP) in Ebonyi State,
is a cream project only designed to enrich a particular segment of the
Ebonyians.
From question 6,it can be adduced
that a reasonable percentage of Ebonyians do not have any relationship with the
implementation stakeholders of NAPEP in Ebonyi State.
This situation will as well mar the success or the degree of awareness of the
programme in Ebonyi
State.
From question 7, the data derived
therein reveals that the rate of poverty in Ebonyi State
is still at greater level, since majority of the poor masses are still
unemployed. It can therefore, be adduced that the programme have not achieved
its prime objective of reducing abject poverty in Ebonyi State.
Question 8, revealed that the
programme have not provided the desired social amenities for the Ebonyians,
hence, it is found wanting in some of the objectives for which it was
enunciated.
Question 9 revealed that the
programme does not really serve the interest of the poor masses of Ebonyi State,
for which it was enunciated. This logic was buttressed through several reasons
adduced by majority of the respondents, which can be found in question 10
below.
From question 10, the reason adduced
by the respondents from their response in question 9 above, revealed that the
programme in Ebonyi
State is politicized and
as well can be adduced as not standing for the interest of the poor mass rather
the ruling class in Ebonyi
State.
From question 11, the respondents
gave several reasons which can be adduced as being responsible for the poor
implementation of the programme in Ebonyi
State, which include
among others;
i.
Poor orientation
or enlightenment campaign on the importance of the programme on the poor
masses.
ii.
Hypocrisy and
relative lack of commitment to implement policy goals.
iii.
Politicization of
the government policies and programmes, etc.
From question 12 several recommendations
and suggestions were adduced to ensure the success of the NAPEP programme in
Ebonyi state, such suggestions made by the respondents are;
i.
Government should
ensure the involvement of the people or target communities in the execution of
the programme concerning them.
ii.
Government should
embark on an effective co-ordination and supervision of programmes to ensure
compliance.
iii.
Government should
embark on periodic review or evaluation of programmes in order to determine the
progress or otherwise of a given policy or programme etc.
5.2
CONCLUSION
The
level of poverty in Ebonyi
State is high. More than
70 percent of her population exist below the poverty line. Government have
initiated many programme towards poverty Alleviation, but, sadly enough, the
more government efforts to reduce poverty, the more poverty spreads. This
situation is more painful considering the fact that Ebonyi State
has both human and material resources that can be harnessed.
But it has been discovered that
poverty thrives because those who initiate and implement the programmes are
hungry politicians and bureaucrats who Siphon money meant for these programmes
for personal use.
So for Ebonyi State in particular
and Nigeria in general to attain the much desired poverty free society, right
things must be done at the right time and round pegs must be fixed in round
holes.
5.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings made in the
course of this research, we hereby recommend the following;
1
The major
beneficiaries should as a matter of necessity be incorporated into the
initiation and implementation of poverty alleviation programme by using the
various community leaders. This would
enable the government to identify the immediate need of each community.
2
The Managers of
poverty Alleviation programmes should be appointed based on credibility and
merit.
3
Micro-credit and
micro-finance scheme at low interest rates should be prioritized in order to
encourage the masses to be self employed.
4
Since greater
proportion of the population of Ebonyi
State are predominantly
farmers, government should make mechanized input available to them in order to
encourage them produce more.
5
Government should
embark on various forms of training of the less-privileged in Ebonyi State such
as computer training, hair dressing training, etc. and make available equipment
for them to take off. And should be implemented in transparent , equitable
manner assuring every one access to these schemes.
6
An evaluation
team/committee should be instituted in order to monitor the extent to which the
programmes achieved result.
7
A disciplinary
commission should be instituted to punished any officer that is found wanting
in the discharge of his official duty.
8
Government should
make available good road network to help in products to the cities and abroad.
This would boost the economy of the state.
9
Government should
create an enabling environment to help private investors to come in and help
alleviate poverty in Ebonyi
State.
10
Finally,
government of Ebonyi
State should look into
other States where poverty alleviation programmes have been a success and
emulate.
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