CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This
chapter presents a review of literature under the following sub-heading
a. Conceptual Framework
i.
Experiential Learning and
Teaching
ii.
Principles of analogy or
assimilation
iii.
Principles of mental set
iv.
Retention of learning
v.
Transfer of learning
vi.
Life skill development
vii.
Gender sensitivity
viii. The experiential learning models and
learning styles
b.
Theoretical Framework
i. John Dewey theory of experience
ii.
Piagetian theory of cogitative
development
iii.
Kurt Lewin’s cognitive field
theory.
iv.
Theories of transfer
Related
Empirical Studies
Summary
of Literature Review
Conceptual
Framework
Experiential
Learning
_The
term experiential learning in the context of this work can be taken to be a
process of human cognition (Fernwick 2000). The root of the word cognition in
fact means to learn. Experiential learning is at the core of many teaching and
learning strategies. The theory of experiential learning emphasizes the central
role of experience in learning process. Thus, experiential is used in this
context to differentiate learning theory from both cognitive learning and
behavioural learning theories, which tend to emphasize cognition over affect,
and behavioural learning theories that deny any role of subjective experiences
in the learning process (Kolb Boyatzis and Mainemelis 2000) Experiential
learning and teaching approach are anchored on the principles that:
(a) Significant learning takes place if the
subject matter is relevant to the present interest of the pupils.
(b) Learning which is threatening to the self
(E.g new skills, attitudes, or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when
external threats are at minimum.
(c) Learning proceeds faster when the threat
to self is low.
(d) Self-initiated learning is the most
lasting and pervasive (Rogers 1968; 3). The
implication
of the above principles in the teaching and learning process is that all human
beings have a natural propensity to learn, the role of the teacher is to
facilitate such learning. This the teacher could do through.
(1) Setting a conducive climate for learning
(2) Clarifying the purpose of the learning
(3) Organizing and making available learning
resources
(4) Balancing intellectual and emotional
components of learning
(5) Sharing feelings and thoughts with
learners but not dominating (Rogers, 1968:1).
Against
this backdrop, Rogers
(1968:1) affirmed that learning is facilitated when:
(i) Pupils participate completely in the
learning process and have control over its direction and nature.
(ii) It is primarily based upon direct
confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems.
(iii) Self-evaluation is the principal method of
assessing progress or success. Roger however emphasized the importance of
learning to learn and openness to change.
In line with the above, Fenwick
(2000:4) noted that the experiential learning “places the individual learner as
a central actor in the drama of personal meaning making.” As a central actor,
the teacher facilitates the learner to reflect on live experiences, such as
personal manipulation of learning materials, its interpretations and then
generalizes these experiences to form mental structure.
Onwuka (1981:107) opined “through
active practice, learners’ movement in the case of psychomotor activities
become skillful. At the same time their knowledge grows and they also develop
certain activities”. Onwuka further maintained that the skills, the knowledge
and attitudes so acquired go together. They are inseparable since skill is
necessary to the growth of knowledge, the learner must continually undertake
some activities in connection with the subject matter in school. Teacher’s role
as a facilitator is to assist his teaching by encouraging activities on the
part of the pupils after all, there is hardly a subject without abundant
opportunity for practice today in school.
Experiential teaching originated
from empiricists theory of knowledge. Empiricism on the other hand originated
from the word experience, which is English translation of experiential in
Latin. Experiential is Latin translation of emperia in Greek. The basic thesis
of empiricism is that legitimate human knowledge arises from what is provided
to the mind by the senses, or by introspective awareness through experience. The
statement that experience is the source of knowledge means that knowledge
depends ultimately on the use of the senses and what is discovered through
them. It seems an interesting parallel to note that just as the term
“experience” is ultimately derived from the term empiricism, empiricists
maintain that all knowledge is derived from experience-sense-experience (Niel,
2008:)
Empiricism is the theory that all
knowledge stems from sense-experience and internal mental experience-such as
emotion and self-reflections. The empiricist draws his rules of practice not
from theory but from close observations and experiments, emphasizing inductive
rather than deductive process of thought (Ward, 2008). For empiricists, facts
precede theories and it is possible for one to be an impartial objective
observer of facts. Empiricists claim that no one could have knowledge of the
world unless he had experience and could reason, but this does not mean that
either experience or reason by themselves could provide a kind of absolute
certainty about the world (Neil, 2008)
In experiential teaching method, the
processes make learners active, engaging in confusion, complexity and dealing
with ambiguities which are important parts of the learning process. The
learning outcomes of this approach include; cognitive elements resulting in an
increased awareness, emotional elements producing change attitudes or feelings
and behavioural elements which involve changed inter-personal competencies
(Schien and Bennis, 1965). Those basic features or attributes that are inbuilt
n experiential learning make it differ from other learning methods, such as
expository learning. In expository learning, the entire content of what is to
be learned is presented in its final form. The learner is passive, reproducing
the learning that has been identified by the teacher (Ausebel; 1968). The
experiential teaching method is clearly opposed to Akinbobola (2009:3)
assertion that “the mode of delivery of physics lesson at senior secondary
school level in Nigeria
is by expository”. In it, the teacher delivers preplanned lesson to the
students with or without the use of instructional materials. The teachers in
basic schools are also guilty of the same ugly practice. Through the use of
expository method, the teacher’s roles are to give information or knowledge
transmission as the main goal. But in experiential education, the focus is on
the transactive process between teachers and learners (Fenwick 2000).
Criteria
for selecting level of experience
When designing educational
experience for purpose of experiential learning method, it is important to
consider not only the level of educational experience but also the standard of
quality for the experience and learner’s ability to respond. When matching
experiences with content, one must establish the range of experientiality for
the unit to facilitate the process, Gibbon (1980:2) has adopted this aspect of
decision making to the following hierarchy of experiences:
1. Receptive Mode: Experiences or representation of them are presented to learners
who remain passive audience throughout. This can be sub-divided into (a)
simulated experience and (b) spectator experience.
2. Analytical Mode: Learners conduct field studies in which they apply theoretical
knowledge and skill in order to study some event or some aspect of the
environment, or solve some practical problems. This is subdivided into (a)
exploratory and analytical experience.
3. Productive Experience: Learners generate products, activities
and solve problems that are either assigned or are of their own devising. This
can be divided into (a) generative and challenge experiences.
(4) Development Mode: Learners Pursue
excellence in a particular area such as designing and implementing long-term
programes of study. These is divided into competence experience and mastery
experience.
(5) Psychological Mode: Learners learn to
understand themselves and their relationship with others. They accomplish the
task presented at the stage of development towards maturity and make contributions
in terms of others. This can be grouped into personal growth experience and
social growth experience.
It
is good to note that experiences must reflect the interest and expertise of the
learners. It should also present a range of activities that reflect the level
at which the content is to be addressed, the interest and abilities of learners
and the environment which the learning will take place.
The elements of experience refer to
the things that make the experience to happen. These include the nature of
activities selected, the skills to be applied through the activities and the
way in which the activities are facilitated.
Principles
of Analogy or Assimilation: One of the
basic laws of learning which is in conformity with the principles of experiential
learning is the principle of analogy or assimilation. The principle states that
when individual is faced with a new situation for which he has no natural or
learned response, the response he makes will resemble an earlier response to a
similar situation (Chauhan; 1978). The implication of this is that there is a
similarity between every new and old experience of a learner, and as such,
educators should always lead learners from their known to their unknown.
Textbooks, abstractions, and illustrations should always be brought to reflect
concrete life for learners; secondly teachers must provide identity between
historical event and present day event. This principle is in agreement with the
use of unit approach in pedagogy. In unit approach, individual learner makes
decisions, grows and develops democratic point of view ((Nwachukwu 1989)
(Chauhan 1987). The above principle is in conformity with experiential teaching
method because in experiential teaching approach individuals are actively
engaged in series of relevant activities using concrete or authentic materials.
They make decisions and draw their conclusions based on the activities
undertaken. Hence educators who want to adopt experiential learning approach
need to understand this principle.
Principle
of Mental Set: Another basic law of
learning which supports the use of experiential teaching method is the
principle of mental set. This principle talks about the pre-disposition to act
in a particular way. It is the temporary condition of one’s attitudes, feelings
and interests. Its view is similar to Kurt Lewin’s Gestalt field theory of
cognitive learning. The principle states that for learning to occur, teachers
must prepare learners for various activities in advance(Chauhan 1987, Nwachukwu
1989) Educators can encourage learners to source learning materials (teaching
aids) from homes, community or school. In fact, the hallmark of experiential
teaching approach is the involvement of learners in sourcing of teaching aids
from their various homes. This helps to increase learners’ level of
participation, and prepares their mind for the class activities which the
teaching aids will be used for. The teaching aids must be meaningful and real.
The environment must not be threatening but rather congenial. Learners must be
encouraged to feel that they have control over future activities. Teachers
should develop in pupils positive attitudes.
Retention
of Learning: The purpose of
education is to impart knowledge to learners. The knowledge thus imparted is
only useful if learners are able to retain them for use in school, outside
school and in future life. Presently the greatest tragedy to the education
system at all levels in Nigeria
is that learners hardly retain what has been taught in school beyond the period
of examination. Educators have the onerous task of adopting or devising a
pedagogical approach that will enable learners to acquire, retain and transfer
knowledge transmitted in school to the wider society for use in dealing with
every day problems. (Nwachukwu: 1989)
This discussion will border on
factors that enhance retention and those that lead to forgetting. The
discussion will examine how experiential learning will assist in elimination of
facts that are responsible for low retention of knowledge acquired by pupils in
schools especially in basic science.
Oladele (1987:103) had identified
the following kinds of remembering:
(a) Recognition: This includes the
recognition of the faces of people, painting, musical composition; pattern of
physical arrangement which have previously registered on one’s sensory
receptors.
(b) Recall: Restatement of something learnt
in the past. We recall something even when it is not seen but was presented to
the senses in the past.
(c) Reproduction: One recognizes a basic scientific
law so well, because it was learnt very well.
(d) Performance: Habits learned or skills
acquired are performed by an individual because it was properly learned or
acquired.
Strategies
for Facilitating Retention
Psychologists such as Unachukwu (1989),
Chauhan (1978) and Cliford (1981) have suggested some strategies which
classroom teachers should adopt to facilitate retention of learned materials by
pupils. These are as follows:
1. Over learning: If a subject matter is well learned,
retention is enhanced. Over learning is a term used to describe practice that
continues after a perfect recall has been scored (Unachukwu 1989). To improve
retention, over learning is essential.
To enhance over learning teachers
should provide learners opportunity to practice the activity with materials. In
this way what is learned becomes part of the learner. Experiential learning
provides a perfect opportunity for over learning to take place, since it
involves pupils practice what they learn in order to discover facts and confirm
or refute laws and principles.
2.
Meaningfulness and Organization of
subject matter
According
to Unachukwu (1989), retention is enhanced if materials are made to reflect
things that learners can easily come in contact, or things that affect learners
in real life. It is also necessary that materials are simple, sequential and
logical. This is very essential in teaching science in basic school. Abstract
concepts must be demonstrated with concrete objects, while teaching proceeds
from simple to complex ideas. This will enhance the flow of ideas. For example,
the knowledge of air will facilitate the learning about wind. This will be
achieved through the adoption of experiential learning method in instructional
delivery. This is because the method emphasizes learner’s previous experience,
sequential progression from known to unknown, learners’ active participation
and the use of authentic concrete objects are essential in instructional
delivery.
3.
Association
Learning is retained more if what is learned
is associated to a concept that is well known to learners. This is in
conformity with the stimulus response (S-R) theory which says that learning is
associative. (Unachukwu1989). Here what is meant is that learning is related to
another earlier/previous experience. That is, relating one thing to another.
The moment one of these two things is seen, the other can easily be recalled.
In other words one becomes a cue to the recall of the other (Chauhan 1987).
Experiential teaching method also provides opportunity for association. This is
because of the use of concrete object as teaching aids. In the application of
experiential teaching methodologies, emphasis are laid on teaching aids that
are sourced from learners’ environment. This makes it possible for learners to
be familiar with the teaching aid. As such, the learners easily come in contact
with the materials on daily basis. Any moment a child sees a concrete object
which was used to demonstrate/teach a particular topic in school, he/she will recall
the knowledge that the topic imparted.
4.
Learning by Practice
This
method is also known as learning by doing. In this method, the learners are
encouraged to participate actively in the learning process and the experiences
acquired will be remembered for a longer period (Unachukwu, 1989). This
practice is the core of experiential teaching. Through practice with concrete
materials learners construct and reconstruct meaning which is life long and
transferable from one situation to another. If for example, a child is guided
to find out the characteristics of living and non-living things, the chances of
the child recognizing all living and non-living things any where he sees it are
very high. If on the other hand, a child participates in conducting any experiment
in a subject matter, such child can hardly forget it. Indeed, learning by
practice is the best way to learn as it imparts knowledge which is life long to
learners.
5.
Use of Mnemonic Devices
According
to (Unachukwu 1989), the mnemonic devices are individually formulated
abbreviation used by learners to aid recall of major points. Mnemonic devices
are also used to learn materials that come close to meaningless materials. This
is useful in the area of science subjects as formulas are represented with such
devices. For example, H2SO4, HCl, CO2.
Imagery
(AUDIO-visual Aids): Audio-visual Aids are mostly materials that are used to
appeal to the senses of sight and sound of learners. These materials appear in
various forms. They include radio, television, tape records etc. There is no
point emphasizing the obvious fact that effective use of these materials as
instructional materials in the class-room aids retention. The reasons these
materials are needed in teaching is that there are people who can see but
cannot hear well, while some other people can hear well but cannot see. This
therefore means that for audio-video aids to serve properly, there should be
joint use of the materials. Audio-video
should be well prepared (Unachukwu 1989). This enhances retention of learners.
Therefore if educators want to enhance retention in learning, they should
encourage the use of this method.
Self
Recitation?
This is a method of continuously
rehearsing what was learned. This rehearsal could be done by heart or aloud by
the learner. Learners can also recite individually in groups. Therefore, to
encourage learners to retain what they had learnt, teachers should organize
them in groups or encourage individual rehearsal of what they learnt.
Building
blocks Psychologists have generally acknowledged building blocks as a method
that enhances retention of learning. One way of doing this is to use Advance
Organizer (Unachukwu 1989). Advanced organizer according to Unachukwu
(1989:200) means that if the teacher teaches in advance of the actual lesson
the main ideas of that lesson”. This helps students in many ways as well. It
enables them point out the similarities between what they already know and what
is to be learnt.
The
implication of all these methods to the educational system is that Educators
(teachers) should understand the teaching method which will lead to the
adoption of these strategies that facilitate retention. In fact the process of
education will be meaningless if children do not retain the knowledge transmitted
in school. That is why the use of experiential teaching method is being
recommended. The strategies discussed above are similar with the process of
experiential teaching method. Educators must strive at fashioning out
strategies that will enhance retention of knowledge transmitted in school. This
will enhance transfer and application in the context outside the learning
environment.
6.
Transfer of learning
The essence of any form of education (formal
or informal) is to equip the learner with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that will enable the learner to adapt and survive in the society. Formal
education becomes irrelevant if the knowledge transmitted to those who submit
themselves to it cannot be used to solving the problems of learner outside the school
environment. It will be absurd situation if what children were taught in formal
school had no relevance outside the context of the school (Nwachukwu 1989).
Therefore, to make sure that the knowledge transmitted in schools are useful in
overcoming the challenges of the society, educators must emphasize on
strategies that enhance transfer of learning. Children are educated to prepare
them for living. They are also educated to enable them acquire values and deep
sense of morality. Based on those expectations, and in line with the implicit
faith the society places on the efficacy of education, one should expect that
all school learning should have a positive carry-over effect on challenges or
problems in society. That is why government spends large percentage of her
annual budget in education.
Knowledge
transfer implies carrying knowledge across contextual boundaries (Fernwick
2000). To Chanhan (1978:200) knowledge transfer is “the application or
carryover of knowledge, skill, habits, attitudes or other responses from the
situation in which they were initially acquired to some other situation for
which they were not specifically learned.” From the above therefore,
achievement in any school subject can only be adequately measured in relation
to the extent to which learners are able to utilize the knowledge acquired in
school to solve their daily problems or life challenges. Teachers and
curriculum planners have the grave responsibility of ensuring that the teaching
method for use in teaching and the curriculum content make provision for
transfer of learning. Psychologists on their own have identified three possible
knowledge transfers. They include positive transfer, negative transfer and zero
transfer (Nwachuku 1989). If knowledge in basic science and technology enhanced
understating a concept in health education, positive transfer has taken place.
If the same knowledge has inhibited learning in another subject area, it is
negative transfer. But if it has neither enhanced nor inhibited acquisition of
other knowledge or skill then it is zero transfer.
In transfer, there are three types
of transfers these include: sequential, lateral and vertical transfers. Each of
these may take place depending on the nature of its task, its levels of
difficulty and the conditions which result in transfer (Nwachuku 1989).
Lateral transfer involves using
knowledge gained to solve the same level of task of equal difficulty in another
situation. Vertical transfer occurs if knowledge acquired is used to solve a
complex problem from the same knowledge area. This implies that there is a
movement from lower level to higher level of difficulty. (Chauhan 1978)
Indeed transfer is critical to
learning, in that, if there is no transfer, there is hardly any learning,
because the essence of learning is for the acquisition of knowledge, and skills
needed to solve problems in life. Experiential teaching approach guarantees
transfer of learning.
Life
skill: These are the basic skills or techniques which individuals require to
cope effectively in life and for every day functioning (UNICEF, 2001). By
definition, experiential learning is seen as a process through which a learner
generates knowledge, skills and value from direct experiences (Houle 1980). The
skill may be vocational skill or life skills. Skill is an indispensable
component of learning such that any form of education that does not incorporate
skill development or acquisition is grossly inadequate. Skills are
indispensable to the growth of knowledge. At the basic school level, knowledge
in science and technology should impart basic life skills to learners, most
especially those that relate to science process skills. This will enable
learners develop the needed skills to cope in a society dominated by scientific
and technological innovations and skills in doing further science. Typical
examples of skills needed here are, perseverance, close observation, curiosity,
testing, precisions in use of instruments, measurement and accuracy in
interpretation. Children are empowered when they can exercise age-appropriate
control, make choices that impact themselves, their resources and participate
in the society. Life skills when appropriately mainstreamed into relevant
subject matters contributes to young people’s empowerment by helping them to
understand their rights and responsibilities while building their skills to
understand and benefit from opportunities around them, UNICEF (2013). Life
skill gives rise to critical thinking. This means that any child that acquires
relevant life skills in the course of doing science must weigh every decision,
viz-a-vis the merits and demerits of the usage of the knowledge acquired. The
child must consider the impact of the application of the knowledge to himself
and the larger community.
Life skills on the other hand are
seen by World Health Organization (WHO, 2001;4) as “the abilities for adaptive
and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands of every day life”. To UNICEF (2001:7), life skill means “a behaviour
change or behaviour development approach designed to address a balance of these
areas; knowledge, attitudes and skill”. Life skills promote mental well being
of and competencies in young people to enable them face the realities of life.
Life skill include, skills in problem solving, critical thinking, creative
thinking, coping with stress and emotions (UNICEF, 2001). Well-motivated
teachers through the use of certain method and tools could develop these skills
in learners, which enables learners change from passive recipients of knowledge
to active participants in the learning process (UNICEF, 2001). Life skills are
not only indispensable in developing learners’ interest in doing science but
are necessary in dealing with the realities of life. Educators should be cognizant
of this important point and plan all basic science and technology lessons in
such a way that each unit of instruction contains relevant life skill
component. It is important to note that Education is not complete if it does
not impart relevant life skills to its clientele. These life skills are very
essential and are considered as major results/out-comes of quality education
(science or art). In most developed educational settings such as U.S.A, United Kingdom,
Canada,
life skills are strongly emphasized as it is a means to empower young people to
deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Science as
we know being critical to the social and economic wellbeing of every individual
should promote the development of life skills right from the formative level of
education. Science education that does not include the requisite life skills in
every unit of course may lead to children acquiring scientific knowledge which
may turn to be destructive as the recipient of the knowledge may put the
knowledge into wrong usage. It is therefore necessary that experiential
teaching method which emphasizes the acquisition of skills could be used in the
teaching of Basic Science and Technology. The major task before the teacher in
employing the method is to carefully guide the learners so that the skills that
will be emphasized in the course of instruction will be those that are useful
to the development of the learners themselves and the society at large. Indeed,
it is evident that the world at present has gone scientific. Social and
economic lives are becoming more complex. It is becoming more important to gain
scientific skills that will help young and adult people become competent and
confident in achieving results to the best of their abilities. Therefore, a
pedagogical approach that is suitable in equipping people to adapt to this
present challenges is the one that equips learners with life skills in addition
to imparting knowledge to the learner about the subject matter. Experiential
teaching method is one of those teaching approaches and educators should
encourage teachers to adopt and extensively use it in not only teaching of
science and technology but all other subjects taught in basic schools. Through
life skill education, children acquire a greater sense of belonging and
confidence, their ability to take positive actions and make important decisions
in their lives are enhanced. It enables to make better career choice in life.
When life skills are built into the teaching of basic science and technology,
children are placed in a better position to make positive career choices in
sciences. This becomes obvious as UNICEF (2013) had stated that the definition
of life skill includes a range of skills and knowledge. Essential in its
definition are the personal, interpersonal and cognitive psychosocial skills
that enable people to interact appropriately, manage their own emotional states
and make their own decisions and choices for an active, safe and productive
life (UNICEF 2013). Life skill gives rise to critical thinking. This means that
any child that acquires relevant life skills in the course of doing science
must weigh every decision, viz-a-vis the merits and demerits of the usage of
the knowledge acquired. This could be achieved through the use of experiential
teaching method in its delivery. Experiential teaching method brings to bear
the creativity and ingenuity in learners. This is so because it challenges
learners to discover fact about issues through the use of their sense or
reasoning.
Gender
Sensitivity
In a bid to providing equal
opportunities to both male and female learners to fully participate in basic
science or other subjects in school, using the experiential teaching approach,
educators (teachers) should be gender sensitive.
Gender sensitivity in instructional
delivery refers to the use of non-sexist expression. It refers to the selection
of teaching materials that do not portray gender discrimination. Such teaching
materials include: story illustrations, textbook illustrations etc. it extends
to the non-assignment of responsibility to a particular gender, if on the other
hand teachers emphasize or de-emphasize any gender, it will limit the extent to
which the de-emphasized gender will succeed in the course of instruction, especially
in science course. This issue has become necessary since we are living in a
society that believes that science and all science allied professions are not
meant for girls.
It is against this backdrop that
Njoku (2006:16) had observed that “strong gender biases pervade science and
technology (S&T) curricular used in Nigeria basic and senior secondary
schools”. The biases according to him are in terms of choice of drawings, or
pictures of illustration of S&T activities, language of expression used in
S&T books, teachers’ choice of activities used in science teaching. He
lamented that girl’s interest and daily experiences are rarely considered for
inclusion in the S&T books. It is evident as was observed by Okeke and
Rufai (2003:5) that “teachers’ teaching styles, attitudes, interactions,
expectations and even the task they assign such as male and female leadership
positions, work to reduce girls participation in class and eventual
achievement”. If the above claim is true, it then means that if such ugly practices
are not checked, teachers may extend it to this experiential method of
instructional delivery. This will further deepen girls’ disadvantaged position
in the study of basic science. Any discrimination in providing any type of
education (science or art) as is in the case of boys and girls cannot be
accepted as it cannot be justified. It constitutes breach of fundamental human
right.
Gender
response pedagogy must be adopted and used by teachers. Gender responsive
pedagogy refers to the specific learning needs of girls and boys…in the process
of lesson planning, teaching, and classroom management and performance
evaluation (ADEA, 2006).
Pupils’
Participation:
Participation in the context of this
study refers to involvement. This means involving pupils adequately in science
class room instructional process. Low or total none involvement of pupils in
science delivery process is the bane of science instruction in Nigeria as was
reported by some science education researchers.
Science is referred to as a system
of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method as well to the organized
body of knowledge gained through such research (Wikipedia, 2012). The
scientific method according to Harlen (1992:8) refers to “the first hand use of
physical and mental skills to generate and test reliable knowledge and
generalization”. The skills involved in doing science is called the
“process-skills”. The process skills involve process such as observation,
question raising inquiry, hypothesizing, predicting, planning, experimenting
and interpreting of observation. Science also involves using the knowledge that
has been generated through the process skills to create and continually refine
testable models of nature that help us to describe, explain, predict and to
conceptualize observable phenomenon of nature (Harlen 1992). The implication of
the above facts of science is that science is an activity-based subject. As an
activity based discipline, children involved in the study of science are
expected to be involved deeply and at all times in carrying out activity,
asking questions while carrying out the activities and giving explanations on
the outcome of the activities carried out. By so doing that children will study
science with understanding. But contrary to the above stated approach in
effective teaching/learning of science, Education science researchers have
independently decried the none participation (involvement) of children in any
doing activity in the science classes. For example, Omotayo and Olaoye (2008)
had noted that one of the allegations against the poor quality of science
instructions in Nigeria
is the “total lack or insufficient participation of students in the learning
process. Nworgu and Nwazojie (2003:13) had on their own lamented that “the
didactic method which teachers currently employ in teaching primary science
emphasizes rote memoration and regurgitation of facts. Pupils’ activities are
given less emphasis”. Ling and Boo (2007:2) on their own stated that “the
teaching of science in primary schools is often didactic. It is not surprising
that pupils learn science concepts by rote---- there is often lack of
understanding of concepts and principles”. The implication of the above
observations is that if the teaching approach employed in teaching of science
and technology is not changed from the current didactic to an activity-based,
such as the experiential teaching approach, learners in Nigerian basic
education will continue to perform abysmally in the study of Basic Science and
Technology.
Participation (involvement) fosters
commitment, ownership and interest. Therefore if children are to show sense of
commitment and interest in the study of science, they must be involved in the
process of generating ideas, explanation of facts and experimenting. They should
be given tasks to carry out both in and outside the class room, while their
teachers will facilitate the process. The class room science teaching approach
must be such that is constructed in a way that brings children to the highest
level of involvement (participation). This is what could bring about
deep-level-learning. The adoption of Experiential teaching approach in class
room science delivery will be a panacea to the total lack or insufficient
participation of students in the learning process as was observed by Omotayo
and Olaleye (2008).
Ajiboye and Ajitoni (2008:59) had
observed that” children learn best by being interested fully in their own work;
by seeing themselves; by doing themselves; by puzzling themselves; by verifying
their own suppositions; by experimenting themselves; by drawing conclusions
themselves on the strength of evidence which they have collected themselves”.
Children could make mistakes which they then could rectify themselves in the
light of new information and evidence which they have uncovered themselves
(Omotayo and Oladeya 2008). For this to occur, an activity-based teaching
approach such as experiential teaching method should be used in
teaching/learning in the class room. This is because this teaching approach
fosters participation (involvement) in class room activities. An involved
person narrows his/her mind or attention to a particular activity that he is
involved or participating. Involvement goes along with strong motivation,
fascination and total implication: there is no distance between the person and
the activity, no calculation of the possible sacrifice. Furthermore, there is
an openness to relevant stimuli and the perceptual and cognitive functioning
has an intensity, lacking in activities of another kind (Leavers 2002).
Involvement or participation gives rise to state of flow in children. The state
of flow according to laevers( 2002:13) is “sought stream of energy felt through
the body” people actively seek this “sought-stream of energy”
Indeed,
young people or children usually find it in play (Laevers 2002). This therefore
demands that the teaching approach in school should be the type that involves
play method. Experiential teaching approach therefore is the most suitable
teaching approach especially for teaching of science and technology as it makes
teaching/learning to be fun for learners. Infact, if we want our children to
develop and become science literate, we cannot do without adopting Experiential
teaching approach in teaching science and technology in basic schools as it
fosters involvement (participation). The satisfaction that goes along with
participation (involvement) stems from the facts that it arose exploratory
drive in children. Exploratory drive is the interest which learners (children)
develop that pushes them to get better grip on reality, the intrinsic interest
in knowing how things and people are, the push to experience and find out more
about things. But teachers and Educators should understand that involvement
(participation) is only meaningful if the activity and materials in use are age
appropriate and match the capabilities of the children. Indeed, If we want to
achieve government’s objectives in basic science and technology for children,
we must implore teachers to start using the experiential teaching approach, in
teaching of science and technology since it will guarantee pupils participation
in instructional process.
(Laevers,
2002) had suggested that teachers who use experiential teaching
approach
in the class room should increase their pupil’s (Learner)
involvement/participation
by:
Supplying
stimulating intersections or open impulses that engender a claim of actions in
children like; suggesting activities to children.
Offering
materials that fit into an on going activity.
- Inviting children to communicate
- Confronting them with thought
provoking questions and giving them information that can capture their mind.
- Being sensitive to the basic needs of
the child. This includes; needs for security, for affection, for attention, for
affirmation; for clarity and for emotional support.
- granting children autonomy.
This
means to respect children’s sense of initiative by acknowledging their
interest.
* Giving them room for experimentation
* Letting them decide upon the way and
how an activity is performed and when a product is finished.
* Implicating them in the setting of
rules and the solution of conflicts
* Granting children autonomy.
This
means to respect children’s sense of initiative by acknowledging their
interest.
* Giving them room for experimentation
* Letting them decide upon the way and
how an activity is performed and when a product is finished.
* Implicating them in the setting of
rules and the solution of conflicts.
Indeed, teachers should use the
experiential teaching approach to develop
children skills in using science process skills; the process skills will
make children participate (be involved) in science delivery process. This is
quite necessary as the science process skill is the driving force in effective
class room teaching-learning process.
Experiential
Learning Models
A philosophy in any subject matter
is only useful if it can be translated into action. If it cannot be translated
into any action, it is useless; so also is the case with Dewey’s theory of
experiential teaching approach. Itin (1999) had stated that “one step in
explicating the philosophy of experiential education is through developing a
model of the process”. According to him, all models are by definition,
idealized visions or representations that help one examine the key principles
within a theory. The purpose of designing any model is to demonstrate or
illustrate graphically the interrelationship between the principles.
The intent of this model of
experiential teaching approach is to provide the teachers and other readers
with a holistic picture of how the philosophy might look in practice (Itin
1999).
Davis’ Model of Experiential
Learning
Davis (1993) in his
Conceptualization of the Experiential Learning model, looks at it as the
transactive process between teacher and learners. Here, teaching in this model
is defined as interaction of the student and a teacher over a subject. As
a transitive process which his model
portrays, the teacher brings information and so also the learner. Both of them
bring information to the process. The teacher and the learners not only
interacts but also exchange knowledge. This means that learners learn from the
teachers and teachers also learn from the learners. Similarly student learners
learn from the environment, but they also affect or change the environment. The
educational process does more than take place within a setting. It interacts
and transacts with numerous environmental aspects (Itin 1999).
The environment does not only refer
to the immediate place where the teaching is taking place, but also the wider
society including its socio-political and socio-economic sub-sectors, the
entire learners in the class, and any other systems that impacts on the
teaching learning process (Itin, 1999).
The
Diamond Model of Experiential Learning
_There
is also the Diamond model of experiential teaching approach. The Diamond model
emphasizes four principle system and the transactive process between them. This
transactive process which is part of the
experience is between the four principle system (teacher, learner, subject and
learning environment). The core of this diamond model is a teaching process
which marks a shared concrete experience. The teacher trys to encourage the
transactive process. That is how the experience is used to guide the
educational and process.
The
Diamond Model of the Philosophy of Experiential Education
In
experiential teaching, experience plays vital roles in the learning process.
Experiential learning describes the type of learning whereby learners are
provided with the chances to acquire and apply knowledge and develop skills in
a relevant setting. This means that learners get direct involvement with
actions or activities that lead to knowledge acquisition. It was based on the
above consideration and the belief that knowledge results from the combination
of grasping and transforming experience that David Kolb in 2000 designed his
own model of experiential teaching. The David Kolb’smodel portrays two related
modes of grasping experiences. Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract
Conceptualization (AC). He then classified another two modes of transforming
the experience as Reflective observation (RO) and Active Experimentation
(AE). Focusing on the above, Kolb
designed a four-stage learning cycle.
_
The
four-stage learning cycle by Kolb (2000)
According to the learning cycle,
immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation and
reflections. The reflections are assimilated and sieved out into abstract
concept from which new implications for actions can be drawn. These
implications can be actively tested and serve as guide in creating new
experiences, (Kolb Boyaltus Mainemielis: 2000). The model therefore suggests
that to undertake learning requires specific abilities. For example, in
grasping experience, some people perceive new information through experiencing
the concrete, tangible, felt qualities of the world, relying on our senses and
immersing oneself in concrete reality. Others tend to perceive, grasp, or take
hold of new information through symbolic representation (abstract
conceptualization) (David Kolh et al 2000).
In transforming or processing
experience some people tend to carefully watch others who are involved in the
experience and reflect on what happens, while others chose to jump in and start
doing things. The watchers favour reflective observation while the doers favour
active experimentation. Each dimension of learning process presents us with a
choice. Moreso, human beings are naturally equipped with hereditary or with our
past life experiences and the demand of our present environment, we develop a
preferred way of choosing. To solve the conflict between concrete or abstract
and between active or reflective, we resort to patterned characteristic ways.
This is what is called the learning styles (David Kolh et al 2000).
The learning styles can be broadly
classified into four groups. They include:
1. Diverging
2. Assimilating
3. Converging
4. Accommodating.
Diverging:
The Diverging style’s dominant learning abilities according to Kolb et al
(2000) are concrete experience and reflective Observation. People with this
learning styles are best at viewing concrete situations from many different
angles or points of view. They look at things from many perspectives. It is
labelled “Diverging” because a person with it performs better in situations
that call for generation of ideas, such as brain storming session (Kolb et al
2000). People with diverging learning style are characterized by having interest
in broad cultures and like to collect information. Research according to Kolb
et al (2000) shows that they are interested in people, sometimes imaginative
and emotional. In schools, people with
diverging style enjoy and favour working in group. They like listening with
open mind.
Assimilating:
For this group, their dominant learning abilities are Reflective Observation
(RO) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC). (Kolb etal 2000). The people who
possess this learning style are good at understanding a wide range of
information and processing it into a concise and logical form. They are mostly
in ideas and abstract concepts. The assimilating learning style is critical for
efficiency in information and science careers. In schools especially at the
basic level, children with this style prefer reading, exploring analytical
models and having time to think things through (Kolb etal 2000).
Converging: Children with this learning style like to
experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignment and practical
applications. This learning skill is important for effectiveness and efficiency
in technology careers. The converging learning style is a combination of
Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation (AE). In fact the people
with this style perform well with finding practical uses for ideas and
theories. They demonstrate strong ability in solving problems and making
decisions based on finding solutions to questions and problems. Indeed they
prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems rather than interpersonal
issues (Kolb etal 2000).
Accommodating-this
learning style is a combination of concrete Experience and Active
experimentation. Children who have this learning style have the ability to
learn from” hand-on” experience. According to Kolb et al 2000:6) People with
this learning style “enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new
and challenging experiences”. They rely heavily on people for information when
solving problems. In adult, this learning style is important in action-oriented
careers such as marketing. In schools, children with this learning style work
more with others in order to get assignment done or to do field work and also
to test out approaches to completing project.
Research studies as was reported by
Kolb et al (2000) have shown that there are some adaptive competencies that are
associated with the four learning styles. The accommodative learning style is
associated with acting skills; The Diverging learning style is associated with
valuing skills. The assimilating learning style is related to thinking skill,
while the converging learning style is associated with decision skills
(quantitative analysis, use of technology and Goal setting) Kolb; 2000).
The
description and explanation of the learning styles are further shown in table
below.
Table
2: Learning Styles
Learning
style Learning characteristic Description
Converger Abstract conceptualization + Active Experimentation (
Strong in practical application of ideas.
( Can focus on hypo deductive reasoning on
specific problems.
( Unemotional
Diverger Concrete experience +
reflective observation ( Strong in imaginative ability.
( Good at generating ideas and seeing things
from different perspective
( Interested in people.
( Broad cultural interest. Assimilator Abstract conceptualization +
reflective observation ( Strong ability to create theoretical models
( Excels in inductive reasoning.
( Concerned with abstract concept rather than
people. Accommodators Concrete experience + Active Experimentation (
Greater strength in doing things.
( More of risk taker
(
Performs well when required to react to immediate circumstance.
( Solve problems intuitively. Kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant
1996).
From
the table 2, we can deduce that convergers are good at experimenting with new
ideas, simulations, laboratory assignment and practical application. The
Divergers on the other hand are good at listening with open mind and receiving
personalized feedback. They also prefer to work in groups. The assimilators are
good at science carriers and on information. In school, such learners prefer
reading, lectures, exploring analytical models and having time to think things
through. The accommodators are effective in action-oriented carriers; they can
do field work and test out different approaches to completing a project.
_Processing: In the application of experiential teaching
approach processing plays vital role. Luckner and Nadler (1997) stated that
processing is designed to encourage individuals to plan, describe, reflect
upon, analyze and communicate about their experience. Therefore processing
according to them can be viewed as the driving force behind the experiential
learning cycle, much like the sun’s energy drives the weather cycle of the earth.
Processing can occur prior to during, and after the experience. Those teachers
who become skilled in the experiential learning activities provide their
learners with avenues to bring their thoughts, feelings, insights, metaphors,
and behaviours patterns form the unconscious level to the surface (Luckner and
Nadler 1999).
Processing
in experiential learning model by Luckner and Nadler 1997
It is obvious from the foregone
discussions on the models of experiential teaching/learning presented that
in each of the models experience plays a
vital role in the application of the experiential teaching model as a
pedagogical tool in class room interaction. It is also pertinent to note that
each of the models portrays the role of the learner as being vital in the
teaching/learning process. This is not the case with traditional teaching
approach where the learner remains passive and commits knowledge already
packaged in final form to memory. The models of experiential teaching/learning
emphasizes the need to engage learner in activities and views teaching learning
as a transitive process between the teacher, and the learners. The models also
shows that learning occurs as a result of interaction between learners and
teachers over the subject matter. It shows further that there is interaction
between the learners and the learning environment. If the models of
experiential teaching are adopted, it will facilitate learning in learners that
will be real, permanent and transferable to situation outside the learning
environment as the learners will be practically involved in discovering facts
about the subject matter.
The major feature of the models is
the role of the teacher. His role is central to the transmission of knowledge
as he is responsible for presenting opportunities for the experiences. He
directs the nature of the experience that will occur, he helps learners utilize
these experiences, he establishes the learning environment. It is also the
teacher who places boundary on the learning objectives; he shares necessary
information that will facilitate the experience to take place. Therefore,
teachers have knowledge which is valuable and learners want and require the
knowledge. The models impel teachers into facilitating the experiential
learning process for students. (Itin 1999).
From the models presented, the
learners are not passive, the learners actively engage in creating with the
teacher the educational process. The learner is challenged to move beyond what
he/she already knows which forms his/her initial experience. It is important to
note that neither the teacher nor the learners dominate the process, the
teacher and the learners both bring their skills, talent efforts and other
resources to the educational process. This is what empowerment based education
is all about. In empowerment based-education according to Shor (1992:17) “is
student centered, but not necessarily student directed”. Finally, the model
shows that teachers and learners create educational process through their
interaction and transaction.
The information in the Kolb et al’s
model of experiential learning is highly enriching. Educators are presented
with ample opportunity of understanding their learners’ learning styles in
order to offer them career guidance. It is equally important to note that of
the learners themselves discover their learning style and its implications on
carreer decision or choices, they will be in position to make informed decision
adequate on selection of careers choice in life.
Therefore the application and
understanding of the use of experiential teaching approach will have far
reaching effect in the educational system, based on the above model of the
approach by Kolb. There is compelling need that educators should adopt it as a
teaching method not only in teaching basic science and technology but all other
subjects taught in Nigerian Basic Schools.
Theoretical
Framework
Experiential
Learning Theory
The experiential learning theory
(ELT) by Kolb provides a holistic model of the learning process, which is consistent
with what we know about how people learn. Experiential learning theory is based on Dewey’s philosophical
pragmatism, Lewin’s social psychology and Piaget’s cognitive developmental
genetic epistemology. To Kolb, Boyatzis and Mainemielis (2000) experiential
learning views learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of
grasping and transforming experiences. In line with this observation, Kelly
(2007) observed that Mezirow, Freire (2000) and others had stressed that the
heart of all learning lies in the way we process experience in particular and,
our critical reflection of experience. They spoke of learning as a cycle that
begins with experience continues with reflection and later leads to action,
which itself become concrete experience for reflection. The views of those
scholars helped to show the way the experiential teaching approach if adopted
and utilized will help to enhance pupils’ achievement in Basic Science and
technology.
Indeed, current theory and practice
have recognized experiential learning to predominantly constitute reflective,
construction of meaning, with particular emphasis on critical reflection and
dialogue (Fenwick 2000). Perhaps it is important at this point to discuss some
of the educational theories of learning upon which experiential learning is
anchored.
John
Dewey’s Theory of Experience
Among the notable empiricists is
John Dewey, whose version of pragmatism is known as instrumentalism (Ward,
2008). John Dewey is regarded as the modern father of experiential
(progressive) education. Dewey’s Major concern was to link experience with
reflection, which essentially means linking undending with doing or
participation. According to Itin (1999:92) It is impossible to simply know
without doing and impossible to fully
understanding without doing?
Dewey said that an educator must
take into account the unique difference between each learner. Each person is
different genetically and in terms of past experience. Even when a standard
curriculum is presented, using established pedagogical method, each learner
will have a different quality of experience. Thus, teaching and curriculum must
be designed in ways that allow such individual differences (Ward 2008). For
Dewey, the one way delivery style of authoritarian schooling does not provide a
good model for life in a democratic society. Instead, learners need educational
experiences which will enable them to become valued, equal and responsible
members of the society. He however cautioned the interpretation of the term
“freedom” as freedom in its entirety is not the solution. He rather affirmed
that learning needs a structure and order, and must be based on a clear theory
of experience, not simply the Whims of teachers or learners (Ward 2008). Thus,
Dewey proposed that education should be designed on the basis of a theory of
experiences. We must understand the nature of how humans have their experiences
in order to design effective education. In this respect, Dewey’s theory of
experience rested on two central tenets i.e. continuity and interactions.
Continuity: Dewey argued that human are sensitive to (or are affected by)
experiences. Human beings survive more by learning from experience after they
are born than do many other animals that rely on pre-wind instincts. In humans,
education is critical for providing people with skills to live in the society.
Dewey maintained that we learn something from every experience, whether
positive or negative and one’s accumulated learned experience influence the
nature of one’s future experience. Thus every experience in some ways
influences all potential future experience for an individual. Therefore,
continuity refers to this idea that each experience is stored, carried on into
the future, whether one likes it or not(Ward 2008).
Interaction:
According to Dewey’s postulation, interaction builds upon the notion of
continuity and explains how past experience interacts within the present
situation to create one’s present experience. Dewey’s hypothesis is that your
current experience can be understood as a function of your past (stored)
experience. Any situation can be explained in profoundly different ways because
of unique individual difference (Ward 2008). This is important for educators to
understand. While educators cannot control learners past experiences, they need
to understand those past experiences so that better educational situations can
be presented to the learner. Ultimately, all the teachers have control over are
present situations. The good teacher with good insight into the effects of past
experience which learners bring with them better enables the teacher to provide
quality education which is relevant and meaningful for the learner (Ward 2008).
The implication of this theory of
experience in teaching of basic science through experiential teaching approach
is that learners should always be provided opportunity to be actively involved
in the learning process. Materials must be provided in the classroom, and learners
should be guided to manipulate the materials in order to find out facts about
concepts being thought. Their participation will help to construct, reconstruct
or deconstruct beliefs or myths which they hitherto had prior to learning. The
facts that arose from the classroom interactions help to build up children’s
experience for future life and learning activities. In addition, participation
may facilitate learning because learners may have been involved (past
experience) in similar activity either in school or in the community. Experiential teaching approach is orderly
planned and sequential. Tyler
(1971:85) identified planned “sequential practice” of what is being learned as
a key element of learning system. The method offers learner opportunity to
learn by practice. Dewey (1938:132) stated that “… All principles by themselves
are abstract. They become concrete only in the consequences which result from
their application”. This assertion is in line with Brookfield (1983;113) definition of
experiential learning as “a method which reflects a desire to gain knowledge
and skills”. Experiential learning provides learners opportunity for practical
application of theory, the application provide knowledge and skills that are
pervasive, permanent and life long. From the above discussion it is obvious
that if experiential teaching approach is adopted as a teaching approach in
teaching basic science and technology in schools, learners will have the
opportunity to get involve in practical aspect of the learning in addition to
theoretical aspect of it. This will lead to the pupils acquiring knowledge
about science that will be long lasting, pervasive and permanent. This is the
only way that the goal of government in
introduction of Basic science and technology in the Basic school curriculum
will be achieved.
Piagetian
theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget studied the development
process of understanding knowledge and working of the child’s mind. He proposed
that cognitive development proceeds through an orderly sequence of stages. His
main concern was the study of how intelligence develops and the laws which
govern this development. For Piaget, intelligence is the interaction between
the individual and the environment, thus creating adaptation. He maintained
that the functional process of intelligence consists of assimilation and
accommodation. When a child tackles a new situation, he naturally goes about it
in ways familiar to him, trying to understand the new situation in relation to
what he had already known. According to Igboabuchi (1989) and, Chauhan (1989),
assimilation is therefore the process whereby the individual gradually comes to
include the new information acquired into his present thinking by adjusting his
scheme of thinking so that the new one can be included.
Accommodation on the other hand is a
process where an ‘old scheme (or way of thinking about something) is modified
in order to adjust to the new information. (Igboabuchi 1989) Thus in
intelligent act, the individual will assimilate information into his thinking
structure and at the same time accommodate this structure to deal more
appropriately with the reality. Adaptation occurs when assimilation and
accommodation are balanced. Piaget believed that schemas (cognitive structure)
exists in primitive form at conception and progressively develops during the
life time in certain systematic ways. Therefore, in seeking to explore and
understand the world around him, perpetual functional process will generate
mental structures (or overall picture) about how things fit together. These
mental structures develop and change as the child grows. Igboachi (1989) Piaget
identified four stages of these mental structure developments.
Each
stage has a peculiar way of organizing information or experiences. The four
stages are as follows: Sensori-motor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete
operational stage and formal operational stage.( Igboabuchi, 1989)
A. Sensori-motor stages: This starts from
birth to the age of two. The child is in pre-nursery classes.
B. Pre-operational stage: This starts from
ages two to four years. The child at this stage is in nursery class.
C. The concrete operational stage. This
starts at the age of eleven (11) years
The
concrete operational stage
Concrete
Operational Stage according to Chauhan (1978:82) refers to “that stage of
cognitive development when the child is able to direct his attention away from
the static conditions and can focus on the whole set of successive changes that
occur in the process of transformation”. This means that the child can reason
well. This stage starts from age 7-12. the child at this stage can do
“grouping” (Chauhan, 1978). Grouping is a term which piaget had coined to
describe a set of operations which a
child at this stage can undertake (Chauhan 1978). At this concrete operational
stage, the child finds it difficult to go beyond concrete situations and
generalize what was learned in one situation to a new situation. (Igboabuchi
1989). At the concrete operational stage, what the child undertakes and
operates with is the real, he/she does not comprehend the potential. Here, the
child begins to learn concepts such as number, order (in sequence) and
measurement. This means that such children can undertake addition, subtraction,
multiplying and dividing. During the period of concrete operations, there are
some logical inconsistencies in the child’s thinking. Piaget calls this
“syncretism” (Chauhan 1978). At this period a child can now understand or
recognize whole no matter the manner and ways parts of the whole are arranged
or re-arranged. For instance, if water is transferred from a large cup to a
small cup the child will still recognize that the volume has not changed. The
major achievements at this stage according to Igboabuchi (1989:84) “are
decentering, conservation and reversibility”. In fact at this stage the child
can think logically.
Children in this stage are in basic
school and only very few will be in secondary school. Teaching here requires
enough use of teaching aids to help appeal to learning senses and make lessons
real. Here the use of experiential method of teaching will facilitate the
development of both small and large muscles as children will continuously be
engaged in the manipulation of the teaching aids provided in the class.
Children should be encouraged to participate actively in all class activities
as this will help develop their senses of smell, sight and in some cases taste.
This is because participation (involvement) in events makes children active. It
creates satisfaction. This satisfaction that goes along with participation
stems from one source; the exploratory drive, inquisitiveness, the need to get
better grip on reality. The intrinsic interest in how things and people are the
urge to experience and figure out. Their affective and psychomotor domains will
also develop. This is the hallmark of experiential learning. The experiential
teaching method should be combined with dramatization, experimentation, and
demonstration techniques. Also, there should be extensive use of illustration
and interesting stories in the classroom during all instructional delivery.
Basic science and technology should be taught solely through experiential
learning while the teacher encourages the pupils to experiment.
The implication of Jean Piaget’s
theory of cognitive development to learning is that teachers should try to find
out what learners already know prior to the learning period. This is due to the
fact that the way the child approaches the new learning situation will have
bearing on the learners’ previous knowledge (old experience). If what the child
already knows is related to what is to be learned, the process of new learning
for assimilation will be facilitated. If it does not relate to what he had
known, learning will not be enhanced very fast. The teacher who applies the
experiential teaching methods can effectively achieve the above goal. This is
because the teaching method builds on the past experience of learners in the
presentation of new (present) experiences. More so, in line with the principle
of the experiential teaching method, learners should be provided with learning
materials that are appropriate to the Piagetian mental stage of the child. The
teacher through facilitation should guide learners to find out fact about the
topic for accommodation in their scheme. The learning materials must be
adequate and preferably sourced from the learners’ environment. Teachers in
Basic Schools should as well determine the piagetian mental age of children, so
that they will know the appropriate teaching method to employ most especially
in presentation of facts to learners. Furthermore, the knowledge of the mental
stage of the learner shows that the material, the task to be assigned and the
level of participation of learners should vary among learners. Moreover, to teach basic science and
technology in basic schools, teachers must provide concrete teaching/learning
aids (materials) to learners. This is because learners are at the concrete
operation developmental stage. Ideas should be presented one after the other.
If for example, a teacher is teaching about flowering plants, he should not
combine the lesson with topics on vegetative plants. If he does, the children
will get confused. Concrete objects must be used as teaching aids. Topics that
are abstract should not be taught in basic science and technology and if it
must be taught at all, concrete objects should be used to illustrate or
demonstrate the effect of such topics. Such concepts include air, wind, and energy.
If such abstract concepts are not illustrated with concrete object; the lesson
becomes meaningless to learners at such mental stage Experiential teaching
method makes learning real and addresses the learning needs of learners, as
learners come face to face with real life challenges/problems. The major task
of the teacher is to appropriately match each task with materials that will
reflect life situation and the mental stage of learners as specified by piaget
theory.
The major limitation of this theory
is that human beings have individual differences; the mental development of
children of the same chronological age may not be at exactly the same piagetian
development mental stage. It is note worthy that Basic Science and technology
is a subject that should be practical oriented. This becomes more obvious when
the subject is taught to children that are still within the Piaget’s concrete
operational state. To effectively teach the subject so that it will make
meaning and as well bear the desired results, experiential teaching approach
must be employed by teachers. This will help correct the faulty approach
currently employed in teaching the subject which Nworgu and Nwazojie (2003:13)
Lamented that in it “pupils’ activities are given less emphasis”. While Ling
and Boo (2007:3) states that it makes pupils view science and technology as
“pieces of information and do not see the big picture of a unit of learning”.
If the experiential teaching approach is adopted by teachers in the teaching of
science and technology, children will start to apply what they are taught in
their science and technology lessons in their everyday activities. Therefore
basic science and technology will not be made alien to pupils as was observed
by Omotayo and Olaleye (2008:2) when they lamented that the current teaching
approach makes ‘science alien rather than being tool for industry”.
Brunerian
Theory
Jerome
Bruner, an American Educational psychologist developed a theory of intellectual
development. His theory favoured the use of discovery approach to learning
(Igboabuchi 1989). This discovery approach to learning is what experiential
teaching approach emphasizes.
Bruner’s theory of cognitive growth
shows that the child’s intellect develops in a sequential order or stage. This
stages were labeled as presentation’s by him. (Igboabuchi 1989). The stages are
as follows:
1. Enactive representation:
2. Iconic Representation:
3. Symbolic Representation:
Enactive
representation falls within the early childhood. This is between the first two
years of the child. This is the time the child gains knowledge by means of his
actions or activities. (Igboabuchi 1989).
Iconic representation: At this
stage, the child’s central focus is on concreteness. This stage is similar to
piaget’s concrete operational stage. In this stage whatever is presented to the
child must be concrete for the child to grasp and make meaning out of it. This
means that concreteness not abstract conveys meaning to the child.
In this stage according to
Igboabuchi (1989:86) “their (children’s) system of thought depends mainly on
visual organization. The visual images aid the development of mental
structures. The images formed help the child to engage in logical thinking”.
Therefore, to teach a child that falls within this iconic stage needs
presentation of concrete object. To achieve this, a teaching approach that
encourages use of authentic or real object must be the most desired, such
method must encourage hands-on and
minds-on, it must be an activity-based teaching approach.
Bruner identified two major terms
that characterizes stages of learning. These are
(a) Concept formation- This refers to the
process of primitive categorization of objects. (Chauchan 1978)
(b) Concepts attainment. The number of
dimensions or specific attribute values of concepts that are known to the
subject before hand and hence he is properly set to find out the definite
attributes of a concept. (Chanhan 1989)
According
to the theory, there are three types of concepts
(1) Conjunctive
(2) disjunctive
(3) Relational concepts
The theory posits that the variety
of concepts differ from individual to individual depending upon his
environment, intelligence and language ability. The formation of concept by
individuals is cumulative. The concept formed in individual’s later life also
is determined by the early experiences of the person. Therefore the early
experiences are very important and play important role in the cognitive
development of the child in later life: The concept attainment of children
begins with concrete and real objects in the children begins with concrete and
real objects in the child’s environment.
The child explores his physical
environment and through the process of observation, imitation and conversation
with older people he builds many concept (Chanhan, 1978).
Bruner’s theory have implications
for Educators, especially the teachers. These implications according to Chauhan
(1978) and Igbobuchi (1989) include:
(1) Educators (teachers) must provide direct
experience of concepts of object taught to learners. This idea is consistent
with the Philosophy guiding the application of experiential teaching approach.
Included, experiential teaching approach emphasizes that materials for use in
teaching should be sourced from the locality of the learners. This helps the
learners to recognize the material and as well identify and independently
utilize it in their homes. Moreover, direct experience gives first hand
knowledge of the objects because first hand experience leaves better image of
the object. (Chauhan 1978).
2. Use of teaching aids is very important.
They help to appeal to perceptual senses while teaching. Experiential teaching
approach also emphasizes the use of teaching aids. In the method, children are
provided with authentic materials in the class room, while the teachers’ role
is to facilitate the process of meaning making from the materials.
3. Use of Discovery approach and problems
solving is essential in learning. This is because learners develop autonomy and
self reliance and what is learnt is not easily forgotten. This is also
encouraged by the experiential teaching approach. In it, learners are presented
with real life problems. This helps learners to develop skills in solving
similar problems outside the class room environment. It helps to build the self
esteem of the learners.
4. New ideas are not easily assimilated by
the mind, if they are not associated with the previous learned concepts. This
is also the hallmark of the theory of experiential teaching. The method
emphasizes previous experience. It was also developed based on Dewey’s theory
of experience (Continuity and interaction). Therefore teachers should take
cognizance of this. They should try to find out what the learner already knows
in relation to the subject matter, so as to know the type of experience to
provide to learners in order to facilitate learning of new concepts. If there
is no link between what learners already know (Previous experience) and what is
about to be learned (new experience), effective learning can hardly take place.
Therefore experiential teaching approach is the most appropriate method to
teaching based on Bruner’s theory of spiral curriculum.
Igboabuchi
(1989:88) had noted that “to instruct someone in a discipline is not only a
matter of getting him to commit results to mind. Rather, it is to teach him to
participate in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge”.
The above view is strongly supported by the proponents of experiential teaching
approach, as the method emphasizes participation or involvement of learners in
discovering facts about a subject matter. The approach believes that learning
occurs through linking of understanding with doing. To do this, learners are
involved or made to engage intellectually, emotionally, socially and practically
in an uncertain environment where he/she may experience success, failure,
adventure and sometimes risk taking. In the process, the learning most times
involves interaction between learners, learners and educators, learners and
environment. The educator’s roles according to Itin (1992:93) “includes
selecting suitable experiences posing problems. Setting boundaries, supporting
learners, insuring physical and emotional safety, facilitating the learning
process, guiding reflection and providing the necessary information”. Bruner’s
theory that emphasizes learning by discovery supports the science method as
Wikipedia (2008:4) had defined science as “a reasoned-based analysis of
sensation upon our awareness”. As such, the teaching method that is most effective
in the study of since must be such that involves observation of natural
phenomena, or experimentation, analyzing and predicting future events.
Therefore, Bruner’s theory provides basis for the adoption of a teaching
approach that will enhance the learning of science and technology at all levels
of education. Such teaching approach must be activity-based and must challenge
learners to effectively engage their sense of reasoning in discovering facts
for themselves. Experiential teaching approach possesses all the features that
the Bruner’s theory and science method require. Therefore, Educators should
take advantage of this and adopt it in the teaching of science, mostly at the
basic education level, as the foundation laid at this stage will affect positively
or negatively the study of science at other levels.
Kurt
Lewin’s Cognitive Field Theory and Motivation
Kurt Lewin’s field theory has its
roots in Gestalt theory (Chanhan (1978). A Gestalt is a coherent whole. It has
its own laws and is a construct of the individual’s mind rather than reality:
for Kurt Lewin, behaviour was determined by totality of an individual’s
situation. In the field theory, a field is the totality of co-existing factors
which are conceived of as mutually interdependent. Individuals were seen to
behave differently according to the way in which tensions between perceptions
of the self and of the environment where the individual is located
(Chauhan1978). Cognitive field theory on the other hand lays emphasis on
cognitive structure or perception of the total field by the individual. From
the theory, Lewin established that patterns of human behaviour are regulated
and directed by cognitive structure which the individual develops in the course
of his experience. Behaviour therefore is a function of the field that exists
at the time the behaviour occurs. In the field theory, Lewin proposed that
tension within the organism is created by disequilibrium within the life space,
which the individual wants to release
through activities (Chanhan 1978. Those activities, which help the individual
to release tension, are called to have positive valence and those, which have
opposite effect, are
said
to have negative valence. Tension persists till the goal or intention is
completed. Lewin proposed two types of needs; genuine needs and
quasi-needs(Igboabuchi 1989).
Genuine needs arise from the
psychological condition of the organism, such as hunger and taste. Tensions
arising from intentions, acts of will, etc or even less arbitrary commitments
of the person are called quasi-needs. Individuals have characteristic structure
of needs, which creates tension and the organism in order to reduce tension is
activated. The desirability of an activity is described by Lewin as Valence. Force is the
tendency to engage in it. Valence
helps to account for choice but force may be more useful for speed or
persistence of behaviour. When a need arises, there will arise a force or a
field of forces, signifying a valenced activity. If the individual has no need
then the environment registers no valence for him nor does it generate any
force for him. In the application of the cognitive field theory emphasis is
laid on present experiences on the motivation of the Learner. Also, there is
emphasis on the past experiences of the individual. Past experiences are very
crucial but the cognitive theory focuses on present experiences of the
individual. The importance of Kurt Lewin’s Field theory to education is that
educators should try to know the learner from the learners’ own point of views.
He should start from where the learners’ perceptions are; and not where the
perceptions of the educators happen to be (Igboabuchi 1989)..
Secondly, Educators should set goals
and purposes for learners. Individual goals should be set. Goals according to
Lewin’s field theory create tension, which is reduced by action on the part of
the learners. Goals activate the learners. More so, since environment
determines the bahviour of an individual, school environment should be
conductive for learning. Furthermore, educators should explore the immediate
and concrete experiences of the learners, so as to determine the type of
learning materials to be provided to learners. To this Nwachukwu (1989; 215)
inferred that “perception of structure, the use of memory and previous
experiences are the key factors in insightful learning. The emphasis is on
restructuring of present field in order to extract the important elements.”
Again, the theory posits that
learning is a process of interaction between an organism and its environment.
Exploratory action, problem solving, creativity are all-important dimension of
learning. This implies that children should be encouraged to explore the world
as much as possible, ask questions, show excitements and express doubts. Experiences
along such lines equip them to grow up as complete human beings(Nwachukwu
1989). This will help to develop skills which are indispensable to growth of
knowledge in the learner. Learners through this process will acquire skills to
test sciences laws, discover new ones, and challenge science laws that are
inconsistent with facts that arise from experiments conducted. The above
features are consistent with experiential teaching. This is contrary to other
forms of learning, such as rote, which is meaningful where comprehension is
tested, or expository learning, where the entire content of what is to be
learned is presented in its final form. In both cases, the learner is passive,
reproducing the learning that has been identified by the teachers (Ausubel 1968).
It is in line with the above consideration that experiential teaching approach
is being advocated for use in teaching of not only science but other subjects
in our basic schools. This will enable the children to interact with the
teaching/learning aids which the children will contribute to source from their
environment. Experiential teaching will also develop in children the needed
skills to explore their environment, ask questions and express doubts in
situations that are inconsistent with facts on ground. This approach will
develop the science process skill in the young learners and will lead to
greater understanding and achievement in Basic science and technology.
Theory
of Transfer
In an attempt to explain factors
that influence learning transfer, psychologists propounded the following
transfer theories: Generalization theory, theory of identical elements, formal
discipline, theory of transposition. These theories are also consistent with the experiential teaching
approach theory.
1. Generalization Theory: This implies the
ability to state a relationship between two or more concepts (Chauhan 1978;
Nwachukwu 1989). If a child learns a concept and is able to transfer its
attributes to a new situation, which did not play a part in the original
learning, the implication is that the child has generalized. If the human
person did not have the capacity for generalization, he would have to learn the
reaction to each stimulus with each new day. Experiential teaching approach
enhances knowledge transfer through generalization by linking activities in
school and home and with even past experiences.(Fenwek; 2000). It is evident
from the theory that if experiential teaching approach is adopted by teachers
in Basic Schools to teach basic science and Technology, children will learn to
generalize knowledge or skills acquired from their science classes. This is the
only way the knowledge they acquired will be useful to themselves and the
society.
2. Theory of Identical Elements: This theory believes that transfer only
occurs if there are identical elements present in both situations. (Chauhan
1978) The elements may be facts, skills, or methods. Fact may be colour,
length, number, height, etc. skill includes; football playing, driving, playing
guitar. while method may be effective way of teaching a concept, or problem
solving. These mean that the curriculum should focus on the society so as to
enable it impart knowledge that will be appropriate in solving the contemporary
issues. Experiential teaching method employs proffering solution to real life
problems in school. This enables learners to solve similar problems at homes.
Experiential Teaching approach will therefore apply this theory of identical
element to impart knowledge in science and technologies that will assist
children solve contemporary problems within the learners’ category and ability.
3. Formal Discipline: This theory focuses
on the mind. It believes that the learning/training the mind receives through
education would have automatic transfer effect on out-of-school situation and
on practical problems associated with daily existence. (Nwachukwu 1989) The
theory emphasizes on the need to provide hard intellectual work to the learner
to train his mental faculties (Nwachukwu 1989). From the above foregoing
theories, it implies that education is sterile where there is no maximum
provision for transfer of learning to occur. Educators have the responsibility
to facilitate, direct, moderate, and guide the learning process to possess the
much needed transfer effects. Transfer can be enhanced by the acquisition of
ability of learning to learn.(Fenwick 2000) This enables the learner to
discover creative ways of solving variety of problems. Moreover learners can
discover variety of ways of solving problems only through active involvement in
construction and reconstruction of meaning. They should be involved in all
aspects of classroom activities. This will enable them develop the skills in
solving problem which will later be transferred to out-of-school/classroom.
Active participation in classroom activities is only guaranteed by the use of
experiential teaching method. If a child is taught personal cleanliness using
the method, the child should be able to practice regular brushing of mouth,
hand washing before and after eating, or after visiting of toilets and at all
other critical times. A child who learnt factors that supports combustion,
should apply the technique at home while boiling water or lighting a match.
Educators should avail themselves the knowledge, which those theories of
transfer present in order to develop in their pupils the strategies to transfer
all knowledge transmitted in the classroom to the wider society. The curriculum
and teachers’ choice of instructional delivery approach must make provision for
transfer of learning to occur. Experiential teaching method presents educators
with maximum opportunities to ensure that knowledge transfer occurs. Educators
should utilize the opportunity offered by the adoption and utilization of this
teaching approach in order to ensure that children transfer knowledge acquired
in classroom in Basic Science and technology lessons to the wider society. This
is the only way Basic science and technology will become useful by serving as
tool for industry and solution to problems.
Theory
of transposition: This theory is based
on the Gestalt theory of learning. This theory of transfer of learning states
that transfer of learning occurs because of perceptual similarities between
situations and that it is in the form of generalization that concepts or
insights that are developed in one learning situation are usable in others
(Chanhan 1978) Transposition has also been called pattern of experience. Based on the Gestalt’s
theory of cognitive development, to learn is to form or to complete a Gestalt
pattern or configuration which has meaning. The processes of the mental
operations involved are as follows.
* There is grouping, re-organisation,
and structurization of materials
* Process of inner relatedness of form
and size.
* Inner structure
* Consistent thinking
This
theory is in line with the experiential teaching theory as both of them
consider past experiences in one situation enhancing learning in the new
environment. Secondly, the theories consider processing of inner structure.
This occurs through reflection on both the past and the present concrete
actions under taken. By consistent thinking, the learner reflects to relate
past and present events.
Theory
of learning to learn: Improvement in learning ability by individuals or
learners results if the individuals practice a series of tasks of a related or
similar task regularly. For example, if pupils regularly practice
classification of living and non-living things each time topic related to
classification in the class room with the teacher using authentic objects, the
pupils can master classification of objects so well that they can easily
classify any other object other than living and non-living things both at
schools and their homes. Moreover if learners solves problems related to
velocity regularly for some days, they will master it so well that they will
not only solve problems relating to velocity but they become progressively more
efficient in it and can solve related problems in acceleration and can know
their differences with speed. The progressive improvement is brought about by a
type of transfer known as ‘learning to learn”. Learning to-learn ranges from
rote memory to problem solving. The similarity or relationship involved appear
to be learning general approaches or modes of attack, becoming familiar with
situation and learning related classes of materials (Chauhan 1978). This
therefore means that teachers can foster transfer of learning in their learners
by providing them opportunities to constantly learn or practice learning how to
learn. For this to occur, teachers must adopt an activity based teaching
approach such as experiential teaching method in instructional delivery.
Experiential teaching approach is unique and can foster learning-to-learn as it
encourages learning through play using real or authentic objects that learner
can easily locate in their local environment
Review
of Empirical studies
A number of studies have been
reviewed for this study. Rachael Mabie and Matt Baker (1996) carried out an
experimental study using experiential teaching approach with two urban inner
city Los Angeles Schools in United States of America (USA). One of the schools
was in East Los Angeles and the other was in
South Central Los Angeles. Five fifth grades, sixth grade or fifth/sixth
combination classes participated in the study.
These groups were randomly assigned
to the following treatments:
(a) A ten-week garden project consisting of a
fifth/sixth combination class and a sixth grade class (56 students).
(b) A ten-week series of three short in-class
projects (including bread baking chick rearing and seed germination for two of
the fifth grade classes (57 students) and
(c)
One control group, a fifth/six
combination classroom that received no treatment (13 students).
The treatments (gardening projects
and short- in – class projects) were developed for integration into a 10- week
instructional unit in science. The teacher of the control group did not include
the specific food and their competencies in the curricular. Gardening
instruction was structured as 15-20 minute session of lecture, discussion and
demonstration in the classroom, followed by group gardening activities. Lessons
were one hour each week for the ten-week period. Three days (one day per week)
were each spent one each of the short, in-class project (bread baking, chick
rearing and seed germination). Emphasis was placed on observing each project as
it progressed, recording observations, making predictions and discussing
outcomes.
The data collection involved
researcher observation of students’ written responses to series of questions on
pre-test and post-test instrument developed by the researchers and reviewed for
validity by a panel of experts. The instrument was designed to find out how
much children knew about where food comes from, their level of awareness of
careers in agriculture and environmental significance of agriculture. The
instrument was pilot-tested with fifth graders at another inter-city Los Angeles School. The K-R20 reliability
co-efficient was 0.74. The data were analyzed using the SPSS+PC Statistical
package.
The result disclosed that the
learners participating in the study knew very little about food fibre system
before completing a ten-week series of the experimental activities. The learners’
knowledge increased through participation in the activities. For example, 69%
of the control group participants 45% of garden group participants and 42% of
short project participants, said that agriculture was interesting on the
pre-test. On the post-test, the percentage of yes respondent in the control
group declined to 54% and increased to 83% in the garden group and 85% in short
project group. The students showed little understanding of the food and fibre
system in their state. On pre-test, 42% of control group students 25% of garden
group students and 36% of short project students knew that California was their nation’s leading farm
state. On the post-test 50% of control respondent, 78% of garden respondents
and 78% of short project respondents were aware of their state’s status in
agriculture. The students’ knowledge increased through participation in the
activities. Many more were able to identify related careers. The students went
from knowing very little to becoming quite knowledgeable. Based on this
research, the researcher therefore recommended that extension professionals
should assist teachers in introducing experiential activities into their
curriculum. Secondly they opined that it is critical to ensure that today’s
youth grow up with basic understanding of food and fibre system. People should
be capable of making educated decision on issues in the voting booth as well as
in their personal lives, starting in kindergarten and continuing through higher
education. Finally, they stated that none use of experiential learning method
makes subject matter seem to loose the qualities that make it exciting.
This
study is considered relevant to the present study mainly because it shows how
much knowledge learners can gain by being involved in practical activities that
bring discovery of knowledge. It also shows that science will be best taught
through experiential teaching methods, as is advocated by the researchers. The
above study is also considered relevant to this present study because just like
the participants were able to identify careers in agricultural science because
they were taught with this method, experiential teaching method will enable
learners become aware of careers that exist in sciences if the teachers adopt
experiential teaching method for the teaching of science in the schools.
In
another related study, Richardson
(1994) conducted a study to determine best learning preferences by specifically
targeted Extension audiences in eleven (II) North Carolina counties in United State
of America (USA).
Agents from each of the II counties
selected an applicable program for their county and developed educational
program objectives and a list of clientele targeted to receive the specific
information. The program ranged broadly from those focusing on water quality,
community leadership development, to feeder cattle conditioning programs. Seven
people who participated in the program in each of the II counties were randomly
selected from county list; and were subsequently interviewed by the extension
agents in those respective counties.
To determine the single most
preferred way of learning by targeted clientele, they were given the choice of
hearing, seeing, touching/feeling, doing, tasting, smelling and discussion.
Among these options, the respondents indicated an overwhelming preference for
“doing”
Learning
method %
Preference
Doing
70%
Seeing
18.2
Discussing
6.5
Hearing
3.9
Touching-feeling 1.3
Tasting 0
Smelling
0
In another question, clientele were
asked if there are any combinations of learning methods that help them learn
better. In their responses, the preferences were strongly focused on
combination of methods that allow them to gain interactive sensory experience
when learning. These findings indicated that 74% preferred some combination
that allows them to “do” what they were being taught. Preferences for
combinations that include being able to “see” what is being taught were
indicated by 64.9% of clientele. Also 35.1% preferred a combination of delivery
method that allows them ‘discuss” the information they are receiving.
When clientele were asked why they
preferred a combination of learning modes, their responses indicated that the
learning process was positively enhanced. Their responses to why they preferred
the combination include the following;
(a) “Combinations make learning easier and
faster”
(b) “Helps for better and longer retention”
(c) “By using all senses, can gain more
knowledge”
(d) “Helps to discuss, then do”
(e) “If I can see it done, I learn it”.
To confirm the consistency of the
responses to the test items, Richardson
administered the same instrument to a group of new workers during their
orientation training. In their responses to the single most preferred mode of
learning, agents even indicated stronger preference for “doing” or performing
80.7% seeing 16.6%, Discussing 3.2% Hearing 0%, Touching/feeling 0% tasting 0%.
On combination of modes of learning that were most preferred, the new group
(agents) was similar to the earlier responses. However there was an even
greater preference for discussion to be included in the combinations.
Seeing/Doing/Discussing had 37%. Hearing/ Smelling/ Tasting/Discussing has 22%,
seeing/Doing had 18.6% Hearing /Seeing/ Feeling/ Smelling/Tasting/Discussing/Doing
had 7.4%. Hearing/seeing/doing had 7.4%, doing/discussing/3.7,
doing/seeing/discussing/touching/feelings had 3.7%. From the above, all the new
agents preferred combinations that include “Doing”. When the two studies are
compared, it is obvious that there is a parallel between those two different
groups of people. They agreed that learning experience should include
opportunities to “do” “see” and “discuss” the information presented. The
results from the above studies led the researcher to recommend that extension
education programs should include foremost, experiential or “doing”
opportunities. The learning process is further enhanced by providing
opportunities for learners to see and discuss the information.
The above study by Richardson is considered to be relevant to
the present study on the effect of experiential learning on pupils’ achievement
in basic science. This is because the study showed how relevant or helpful the
experiential learning can be to any form of learning, be it that the learning
is done either in the formal school system or in the informal system. The study
further revealed that the method enhances retention, logical presentation and
presents learners opportunities to practice what they have learned in new
situation (transfer of learning). Since the study of science involves testing,
asking questions, comparing observation etc. which culminate in “doing” and
seeing”, it therefore means that pupils’ achievement in science will increase
if the subject matter is taught with a teaching method that has the same
process.
Grisoni (2002) conducted a research
on the use of experiential method in instructional delivery. The objective of
the study was to check his projected assumptions about the use of experiential
learning in Bristol Business School London, United Kingdom. In a bid to conduct
the study, he made comparisons of his personal Espoused theory about
experiential learning with the organization’s (Bristol Business
School) theory in use.
Semi-structure discussions were used to gather data from staff and students of
the institution.
The gathered data were later content
analyzed and were grouped together. More so, his major sources of basic data
were,
1. Personal Espoused theory and theories
in use
2. Organizational Espoused theory and
theories in use.
In comparing his personal Espoused
theory and theories-in-use, he discovered that there are contradictions between
the two sets of theories, which indicate tension between conscious and
unconscious processes. While espoused theories are the conscious expression of
value theories-in-use are his personal unconscious enactment of them.
The data gathered from the
semi-structured discussion was content analyzed and the findings were grouped
together under the following
( Different understanding of the term
experiential learning
( Roles and relationships between staff
and student
( Experiential learning is non-academic
( Experiential learning as an
inefficient and costly method of learning
( Experiential learning is seen as a
resource intensive learning strategy.
From the foregone observations, the
researcher concluded that experiential learning was being used in different
ways by wider range of staff of the school than anticipated. There was an
appreciation that experiential teaching could provide more effective learning
for students but was countered by argument about resources constraints and
fears about staff competence. In the light of the above, the researcher
recommended that there is need that a broader application of the approach as a
pedagogy requires considerable staff support in redefining the roles of
teachers as facilitators of learning.
The above study is considered
relevant to the present study; firstly, the findings show that fear by teachers
to adopt new teaching method/approach which will help to improve pupils
academic achievement is the same both in developing and developed countries. It
further showed that resource inadequacy, which hampers implementation of
innovative educational programs, is not limited to developing countries.
Moreover, the teaching method explored by the study is the same as the one
currently being studied.
Finally, it was further discovered
from the study that if the teachers overcome their perceived fears and adopt
the method, experiential teaching approach is the most effective and will be
preferred to other teaching methods.
Ajiboye
and Ajitoni (2008) conducted a study on
the effects of full and quasi-participatory (experiential) learning strategies
on Nigerian Senior Secondary Students’ environmental knowledge implications’
for classroom practice. The study determined the effects of two models of
participatory (experiential) teaching models; the full and quasi participation
on secondary school students’ achievement in selected environmental issues and
concepts. Secondly, the study also examined effect of group size and academic
ability on subjects’ knowledge of the environmental concepts.
Three
hundred and sixty senior secondary two (SSII) students from nine (9) secondary
schools in Ire Podun Local Government Area of Kwara State constituted the
subjects of this study. The selection of the nine (9) schools was based on
stratified random sampling. The study adopted a pretest, pos-test, control
group, quasi-experimental design, using a 3x2x2 factorial matrix. Randomly
selected intact SSII class was involved in the experiment. Six of the nine
schools were randomly assigned as experimental group and three as control
group. Out of the six treatment schools, three were assigned to full learning
participatory learning strategy (FLPS) and three to quasi- participatory
learning strategy (QPLS). Also three used small groups (4 students) and three
used large groups (8 students).
Four
instruments were used in the study. General Aptitude Test (GAT), Participatory
Learning Guide (PLG), Environmental Education Model (EEM); and Knowledge of
Environmental Concept Test (KECT).
The GAT which is a 50-item multiple
choice test was designed by the researchers, has a reliability index of 0.86
using K-R 21 formula. The GAT scores were used to classify subjects into three
academic ability groups of high, average, and low. Also KECT is a 30-item
multiple choice test designed by the researcher based on the environmental
concepts taught the pupils. It has a reliability index of 0.92 using the K-R21.
The Participatory Learning Guide (PLG) and the Environmental Education Model
(EEM) were the experimental materials or stimulus instruments for the study.
The Teacher Instructional Guide (TIG) was the guide for the co-operating
teachers in the full and quasi-participatory learning groups. The conventional
lecture method (CLM) group was allowed to work in the conventional mode.
The full participatory and quasi
participatory learning strategy guides were a 3-hour and 20 minutes session of
five periods each, split into three separate sessions, of eight minutes for
each of the first and second sessions and forty minutes for the third and last
session. Students were assigned to a four-member group for small group and
eight-member group for large group.
The participating teachers in the
study were those who had at least a university degree preferably B.Ed. in any
field, since environmental education cuts across many disciplines. Also the
teachers were those with a minimum of five years post-qualification experience.
All the subjects for the study were pre-tested using the instrument. Teaching
in both the experimental and control group were carried out for three period
(sessions) of 200 minutes (80+80+40 minutes) per week for six weeks. The data
collected were analyzed using Analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) to test the
hypothesis and differences among groups, using pre-test scores as covariates.
The result of analysis of the data
shows that there is a significant main effect of treatment on variation in
students’ knowledge of environmental concepts. The data also reveals
significant main effect of group size and academic ability. Specifically, the
quasi-participatory group obtained a mean of 54.56, the full participatory had
a mean of 52.40 while the conventional had a mean of 51.75. To determine the
source of the observed significance, a post-hoc analysis was carried out using
the Scheffe, multiple ranges. The outcome of the analysis shows that
quasi-participatory learning strategy differed significantly from the full
participatory learning group and the conventional lecture method-group.
However, the difference in the mean
scores of experimental group I and the control group is not significant. This
shows that the quasi-participatory learning strategy (QPLS) is best suited to
enhance the academic achievement of senior secondary schools students’
knowledge in environmental education. It was also observed that the differences
between the mean scores of subjects on the small and large groups were
significant for the experimental group and control groups.
This study is considered relevant to
the present study mainly because the teaching strategy explored by the study is
the same with the teaching subject the present study is set to explore its
effect in the teaching of basic science.
Secondly, the study explored small
group of four members, which is also part of the design of the present study.
Furthermore, the subject area used by the study is taught in basic schools as
basic science which is the subject area this study is based. The above study is
also considered relevant to this study because, the challenges of large class
and poor teacher preparations in the study area are similar to those in the
area where this present study was conducted.
In another related study, UNICEF, UNESCO and
the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) (1997) conducted an assessment of
learning achievement of basic four pupils in Nigeria on some basic subject area,
of which basic science was one. The study was designed to identify competencies
within specific knowledge domains such as basic science which a child who has
been exposed to four years of basic schooling should have acquired within the
dictates of curricular demands. Twenty-two thousand, two hundred and fifty two
pupils (22,252) made up of twelve thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven
(12,777) males and nine thousand, three hundred and one (9,301) females pupils
while one hundred and seventy four (174) unidentified pupils (those who did not
indicate their sex) were sampled across the country for the study. The
instrument for collection of data consists of forty-five multiple objective
test items constructed by the team of researchers that were involved in the
study. The reliability co-efficient of the instrument was 0.81 using the K-R21
reliability co-efficient. The data collected were analyzed. The result
indicated that the national mean score of pupils in basic science was 32.77
with the standard deviation (SD) of 18.19. The scores were further broken down.
It was further discovered that females had a national mean score of 32.96 with
SD of 18.29, while males had a mean score of 32.73 and SD of 18.10. The above
score made the researchers to draw the conclusion that the performance of
Nigerian basic school pupils who have completed four years of basic education
indicates that the level of attainment in basic science is very low. They also
noted that girls performed slightly higher than boys, as against the generally
held belief that science is more suitable for males than females.
The
above study is considered relevant to this present study because it showed the
low level of attainment in basic science in Nigerian basic schools by pupils,
which therefore necessitated the need for an urgent search for solution. This
present study is part of the response for the search for solution to arrest the
ugly situation. Furthermore the study focused on basic science, which is also
the focus of the present study. Finally
the study area of the above research cuts across the whole country including
the area where this present research is centred.
Turesky
and Wood (2010) carried out a study to determine how Kolb’s conceptual
framework can aid reflection on teaching, based on the experiential teaching
model designed from Kolb’s experiential teaching model.
In a bid to conduct the study, the
following questions were posed and
served as guides for the study.
1. How might Kolb’s theory of experiential
learning be used as an interpretive framework for analyzing students’ work in
terms of their leadership development?
2. How might the analysis of students’
work inform and improve teaching?
3. What strategies might be created to
promote students’ growth as leaders by encouraging them to build on dominant
learning modes while also strengthening less developed ones?
Two
students’ papers which focused on their own leadership experiences were
selected as samples for the study. In order to generate data for the analysis,
the researchers structured the assignment around Kolb’s modes of experiential
learning, feeling, watching, thinking, and doing. They closely analysed the two
sampled female student’s papers. Because the papers involved writing narrative
accounts of experience in the work place, the researchers wanted to track how
students cast themselves as protagonists, facing something they do not totally
understand, that intrigues them, that made them realize that they lack certain
leadership skills. In order words, they provided the students the opportunity
to use Kolb’s framework as they reflected back on their lived experience in
leadership. They also wanted the students to analyze and reinterpret that
experience through the Kolb’s four modes in order to learn how they were learning
and operating as leaders and to imagine ways they might learn and operate more
successfully in the future.
In generating information from the
work, the researchers analyzed the work by reading and re-reading them, using
the constant-comparative research. Together they formed a community of
interpretation, checking and re-checking their understandings as they emerged.
They thoroughly considered every aspect of the students papers by identifying
in the narrative involvements, the abstract, orientation and complicating
actions to (coda) These helped them determine which Kolb mode(s) each student
used to explain her predicament and her work to resolve it. The evaluation
segment helped identify whether or not the student drew from alternative modes
in analyzing the experience, imaging alternative responses and gaining insight
for future work.
The findings from their study,
generated potential strategies to nurture students growth as leaders. Secondly,
the study made them became increasingly adept at analyzing students’ stories
from this perspective. Specifically, the study revealed that Kolb’s theory of
experiential learning as an interpretive frame work for analyzing students’
work in terms of their leadership potential made the researchers become more deliberate
as teachers, about analyzing students’ strength and weaknesses. This made the
researchers develop assignments that were tailored to their students
individuals leadership development needs. The study also made the researchers
to know that as teachers, utilizing Kolb’s theory of experiential learning as
interpretive framework for analyzing students’ work in terms of their
leadership potential will make them know their own strength and weaknesses as
experiential learners. Hence it makes teachers know who their students are as
learners and then extrapolate from that as teachers what they can do to improve
their teaching.
This study by Turesky and wood
(2010) on how Kolb’s conceptual framework can aid reflection on teaching is
considered relevant to this study; firstly, the topic of the study which was
determing how Kolb’s conceptual frame work can aid teaching is all about the
use of experiential teaching approach, which is also the focus of the present
study. Secondly, the study revealed that the experiential teaching approach can
be used to teach other subjects, outside the
teaching of basic science and technology which is the focus of the present study. Therefore, if it
is adopted as teaching approach in schools, it can be used to teach art related subjects.
Furthermore
the findings in the study showed that experiential teaching approach helps the
teachers to evaluate both the learners and teachers themselves. Teachers can
use it as an effective instrument for self evaluation. It therefore shows that
the method can lead to enhanced professional development of teachers.
Akiubobola (2009) carried out
experimental work on enhancing students’ attitudes towards Nigeria senior
Secondary school physics using the co-operative (experiential), competitive and
individualistic learning strategies. The study determined if there is a
difference in the attitude of physics students who have been taught with
comparative, competitive and individualistic learning strategies. The study
also determined if there would be a difference in the attitude of male and female students taught with
co-operative (experiential) competitive and individualistic learning
strategies. Two hypotheses guided the study.
In a bid to carry out the study, the
researcher adopted a quasi-experimental design. All senior secondary School
two(SS II) physics students in all the 13 co-educational schools in Ife South
Local Government area of Osun State
Nigeria formed
the population of the study. The size of the population was 680 senior
secondary two (SS II) physics students. A random sampling technique, through
the use of balloting was carried out to select three co-educational secondary
schools. One intact class from the participating schools was randomly reflected
and the three infact classes were randomly assigned to treatment groups.
Students Attitude Towards Physics Questionnaire (SATPQ) was the instrument used
for data collection. This instrument used to measure the attitude of physics
students towards the learning strategies was developed by the researcher.
Content validity of the items was assessed at the time they were developed by
an educational psychologist and two physics experts. The SATPQ comprised 25
items on four (4) rating scale responses. The responses, strongly Agree (SA)
disagree (D) Agree (A) and strongly Disagree (SD) were respectively assigned
value point 4,3,2,1 for positive statements and in reverse order for negative
statements.
The instrument was trial-tested to
establish the reliability of the instrument in the school not used for the main
study. Cronbach Alpha was used to obtain the reliability co-efficient of the
instrument. The instrument had an internal consistency of 0.86.
Research assistants who were regular
teachers in the schools were used to teach the topics. This research Assistants
were given special training on how to teach the concept using various learning
strategies. The use of the research Assistants also helped to control teacher
quality variable. Students in the co-operative (experiential) learning group were
taught in small heterogeneous groups of level. different ability. Each group
was made up of 3 students. Students in the competitive group were also divided
into groups. Questions in the form of quizzes were asked of each group in order
to determine the winning group. The best group was given a prize at the end of
each lesson. Students in the individualistic learning group completed their
activities individually. The concept was taught to the groups for four weeks.
The SATPQ was administered at the end of
the treatment. Analysis of co-variance was used in testing the hypothesis
formulated at P<0.05 alpha level.
The result of the analysis of
hypothesis one indicated that a significant difference exists in the attitude
of students taught physics with co-operative (experiential), competitive, and
individualistic learning strategies. Students showed more positive attitude
towards competitive than individualistic strategy. Also student showed more
attitude towards co-operative (experiential) than competitive learning
strategy.
The result of the second hypothesis
indicated no significant difference in the attitude of male and female students
taught with co-operative, competitive and individualistic learning strategies.
The above results therefore made the researcher to conclude that using
co-operative learning strategy will enable the students to understand, enjoy
and create more positive attitude towards physics, so that teaching it will
become more rewarding to teachers. Also, co-operative learning strategy does
not discriminate against gender.
This study is considered relevant to
this present study which is on the effect of experiential teaching approach on
pupils’ achievement on basic science and technology for so many reasons. These
reasons include the fact that the
teaching method used which is co-operative is an activity-based and is also an
aspect of experiential teaching approach, which is the focus of this present
study. Small groups were used for the study, the same small groups were used in
the present study.
Secondly, the study focused on
physics which is an aspect of Basic Science and Technology. In fact physics is
studied as basic science at the basic level of education.
Furthermore, it has been reported
that students poor attitude and performance in physics at the senior secondary
level is due to the poor foundation laid at the basic level. This poor
foundation gives rise to students developing poor attitudes towards all
subjects related to basic science and technology at higher levels of their educational
pursuit. It therefore means that if co-operative learning strategy which is an
aspect of experiential teaching strategy improved attitudes of students in the study of physics,
experiential teaching approach will also improve pupil’s attitude in the study
of basic science and technology which will culminate in improved performance by
pupils.
In
another related study, Yuan Ling and Hong Kwen Boo (2007) conducted a study on
the effectiveness of concept mapping (A participatory and activity-based-teaching
method) as a revision tool in enhancing pupils’ learning and understanding of
primary science concepts. This research study was conducted in Singapore.
The research study was a quasis
experimental study. The research design of the study was evaluative. This
facilitated gathering of empirical data and also helped the researchers in
making valid statement about the effect of concept mapping on pupils’
understanding and learning of science. Classes gifted and mainstream pupils
were selected and assigned two groups. A the pupils were subjected to two groups. All the pupils were subjected to
take a pretest to the topic. Pupils in the experimental group were continuously
exposed to concept mapping as a learning and revision tool in concurrence to
the topics taught. Secondly, pupils constructed a concept map in groups of four
for the concept lists provided by the teacher. Pupils from the control group
outlined the summary in points form for the same topics taught. Thirdly, pupils
from both groups took the post test of the topic and their results were
analyzed in a quantitative analysis. The above procedure was repeated for each
of the topics covered in the first term for both the gifted and mainstream
pupils. Pupils’ results in the first continual assessment and mid year exam
were also compared in an attempt to check on the validity of concept mapping in
enhancing the retention of concepts over four months. A total of one hundred
and eight(108) pupils selected from all boys school cum gifted education centre
receiving the top 1% of boys from the primary three gifted steaming test in Singapore were
randomly selected for the study. All the pupils were from primary four. The
experimental group, which was a randomly selected gifted and main stream pupils
(N=16, N= 40 respectively) were expected to create a concept map at the end of
each of the topic taught. The control class of the gifted and main stream
Pupils (N=15, N=57 respectively) outlined a summary of the same topics on heat
and at plants parts in team 2. Main stream pupils covered the topic of matter
in team 1 and the topic of water in team 2.
To ensure the test validity and
comparability of the pre and the post tests for each topic, a table of
specification was drawn up to facilitate the crafting of questions to involve
the same concept and process skills for the topic tested for both the pre and
post tests. Multiple choice questions amounting to five marks were selected to
remain in line with the learning objectives of each topic for the pretest.
Selected questions were crafted to test pupils’ application and linking of
concepts. A parralled set of questions was selected for the post test. A panel
experts comprising of National Institute of Education professors validated the
test items, they prepared a model answers and the marking scheme before
finalization of both pre and post tests. 30 minutes were allocated for the pre
and post tests respectively. The pupils were expected to finish both the
multiple choice tests and open- ended questions for each topic.
The data collected were checked and
analysed with pair sample t-test. The null hypothesis were tested using the
analysis at 95% confidence level. The results from the analyzed data showed
that there was a significant difference between the two groups. The significant
difference was in favour of the experimental group. This made the researchers
drew the conclusion that the use of concept mapping as a revision tool enhances
concept learning in primary science.
This
study is considered relevant to the present study on the effect of experiential
teaching approach on pupils’ achievement in basic science and technology
because the subject which the study was focused was the same with the subject
focused on in the present study which is primary science. Secondly the finding
of the study showed that the use of traditional method of science instructional
delivery which has led to pupils poor achievement, in basic science and
technology which in turn necessitated for a search for an alternative teaching
approach is the same in Singapore
just as it is in Nigeria.
Furthermore, the teaching approach used in the study was an activity based
participatory approach experiential
teaching approach, is also activity-based participatory teaching approach.
Again, the participants in the study were primary school pupils. The same
primary school pupils are the subjects (participants) in this present study.
The study involved arranging children in groups (small groups of four pupils),
this present study also arranged the learners in similar small groups, with
each group comprising of 3-5 pupils. Therefore if concept mapping teaching
approach had enhanced retention and achievement in primary science in Singapore,
experiential teaching approach will as well do the same to pupils in Nigerian
basic schools.
In
another related study by Omotayo and Olaleye (2008) on affective science
teaching method to enhance qualitative science education in Nigeria,
carried out in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. The researchers sought to
investigate the performances of students in cognitive and affective scientific
aptitude test, at the upper Basic Education in Nigeria. Integrated science which
is now studied as basic science and technology was the subject selected for the
study.
Four hundred students were sampled from
twenty junior secondary schools in the state. Two hundred of the sampled
students were males while the remaining two hundred were females. Moreover,
twenty students were sampled from each of the randomly selected schools. Three
research questions and there null hypotheses were formulated to guide the
study.
Furthermore, the researchers’ choice
of research design was a quantitative survey research. They visited the schools
themselves and administered the questionnaires and collected the data from the
responses on the questionnaires.
The instrument used for data
collection was tagged Cognitive And Affective Domain Aptitude Test (CADAT). The
instrument was adapted from a standardized test by National Science Teachers
Association Maryland U.S.A, but revalidated. The instrument contains 20 items,
10 items tested the cognitive aptitude while the other 10 tested the affective
aptitude in integrated science education acquired at the upper Basic Education
Level (JSS).
The data collected was subjected to
computer analysis using SPSS 12 statistical package. Two variables isolated for
analysis were cognitive scientific aptitude test scores and affective
scientific aptitude test scores of respondents. The histogram graph of the data
plotted for normal distribution showed that the variables were skewed. After
transforming the data to Log10, the same skewness was still observed. Further
comparison was done on the difference between the two sets of data, using
t-test paired sample and independent sample. The results of the study showed
that:
- there is a significant difference
between cognitive and affective achievement of students in science at junior
secondary schools in Nigeria.
- There is no significant difference in
science between male and female in cognitive achievement.
- There is no significant difference
between male and females in affective achievement.
From
the above findings therefore, the researchers concluded that;
- Employing affective science teaching
models would enhance more permanent commitment to science learning by students
- Engage students with more pragmatic
activity based practical approaches to
science instructions without altering the concepts.
- Treat both male and female students
as equal sources of intellect by engaging them in same task of science based
practical activities in and out of the class room.
- Accept and use large volumes of
recommendation made available in literature on affective orientation.
The above study is considered
relevant to this work which is the effect of experiential teaching approach on
pupils’ achievement in basic science for the following reasons, firstly, the
subject area in the study was science. This present study on the effect of
experiential teaching approach on basic science and technology is also focused
on science. Secondly, the study was necessitated by the poor performances of
students in the junior secondary schools in Nigeria which was due to teachers
usage of traditional teaching approach. The present study on the effect of
experiential teaching approach on science and technology was also necessitated
by the same problems. The two studies were attempts made towards finding
solution to them.
Furthermore, experiential teaching
approach is concerned with the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of
learners. Therefore affective science teaching is a component of experiential
teaching method. It means that if affective science teaching method is
effective in teaching of science in Nigerian schools, experiential teaching
will be more effective since it takes care of the remaining two domains instead
of only the affective learning domain.
Finally, if strong foundation is laid at the Junior level of the basic
Education system, performance at the higher level will improve.
Summary
of Reviewed related Literature
In this chapter an attempt has been
made to review literature or works that are related to this study. This was
carried out under conceptual, theoretical, and empirical reviews.
Under
conceptual framework: the concepts reviewed include; experiential learning,
principles of analogy or assimilation, principle of mental set, retention of
learning, transfer of learning, life skill and gender sensitivity and the
experiential learning models.
In theoretical framework, theories
reviewed include; John Dewey’s theory of experience, Piagetian theory of
cognitive development and the theory of transfer of learning. Furthermore,
related empirical studies were also reviewed.
In all, a search through these
several literature or works related to this study which is the effect of
experiential teaching approach on pupils’ achievement in basic science and
technology supports the adoption of experiential teaching approach in teaching
because the method involves a conscious desire by educators (teachers) to create
learning opportunities by engaging pupils in doing that results to construction
(idea formation) and reconstruction (dropping initial views) of
meaning/knowledge. This is opposed to conventional/traditional teaching
approach where learners are passive and are expected to commit to their mind
knowledge that have been packaged in its final form.
Those reviewed literature showed
that experiential teaching approach is unique in the sense that it imparts to
learners knowledge and skills that are lifelong and essential in adapting to
and survival in life. The processes employed by the method are inquiry and
discovery. These are also the methods employed in effective study of science
through science process. Hence, the two (experiential teaching method and science)
have direct relationship or correspondence. Effective study of science cannot
be carried out through rote learning method currently in use in schools.
Specifically, the empirical studies
reviewed showed the need for the adoption of experiential teaching approach not
only in the study of science but in other subjects taught in Nigerian schools.
This is due to the benefits that learners will derive from the use. One of such
benefits is that learning is made real and is relevant to the needs of learners.
It will also impact adaptive skills to learners.
However,
the empirical related works reviewed further showed that even though the method
is age long, there is dearth or scarcity of studies carried out in this field
in Nigerian basic schools and technology. As it was clearly shown that the
method could work effectively in areas like environmental education and
agricultural science, it will also work in basic science. In fact, no known
study on the method has been carried out in Ebonyi State
of Nigeria.
As a result of this, the present study is designed to fill this gap and
generate interest in further research in this area using this method.