A lot of theories have
been propounded on self – efficacy due to researcher’s interest in the
construct regarding its role in task performance, some of these theories were
used to buttress this work regarding the role of computer proficiency and
Gender on self – efficacy among Ebonyi state university staff. Some of these
theories include:
Social – Cognitive Theory (Bandura,
1997).
The social cognitive
theory proposed by Bandura (1997), explains how behavioural patterns are
acquired and maintained by various individuals with provision of intervention
strategies. Bandura (1997) provided the concept of self – efficacy as he
refuted the traditional learning theory of understanding learning. Hence, the
restructured social cognitive theory by Bandura (1997) was used to emphasize
the cognitive, emotional and behavioural aspects self – efficacy and human
behaviour for proper understanding of behavioural change. Evaluating
behavioural change using social cognitive theory is contingent upon the factors
of environment, behaviour and people. Hence, social cognitive theory provides a
frame work for designing, implementing and evaluating programmes within the
physical and social environment of individuals. The social cognitive theory was
used by the researcher to buttress the role of computer proficiency and gender
on self – efficacy of Ebonyi State University staff. It is the contention of
this paper therefore, that when considerations are given to the three factors
of environment, people and behaviour, self – efficacy will be influenced. Also,
research shows that behaviour is not simply the result of the environment and
the person, just as the environment is not simply the result of the person and
behaviour (Glanz, Rimer and Lewis, 2002). But that the environment provides
models for behaviour and that observational learning occur when a person
watches the actions of another person and the perceived environment (Bandura,
1997). In the like manner, Bandura (1997) opined that in social cognitive
theory, a sense of personal efficacy is represented to heighten people’s belief
in the planning and execution of specific courses of action to achieve a
particular objective. Therefore, self-efficacy seems to be very critical in
social cognitive theory because it is related to self-perception which can
influence the determination of the outcome of varied events.
Self
- concept theory of self-efficacy [combs and snugg, 1949]. The self concept
theory of self-efficacy seeks to explain people’s interpretation and perception
of their own existence through external cues.
The
self concept theory of self-efficacy contends that many of the successes and
failures that people experience in their life is contingent upon their
perceptual views of themselves and others. This theory also explains how
identity is constructed through interaction with others unlike social learning
and social cognitive theory that lay emphasis on perceptual organizations.
Hence,
people tend to behave in a manner that is consistent with their self view.
Festinger (1962) corroborates the contention of the self concept theory of
self- efficacy by saying that we react to people and tasks in such a way that
seems most consistent with our self image and aspirations. Therefore, being
computer proficient by university staff may have resulted from high self
concept and high self-efficacy that is geared towards improving the self image
and aspiration of workers.
So,
favorable consideration of the applicability of the above theory may impact
positively on the professional lives of Ebonyi state university staff.
Additionally,
Fivush (2011) opined that with a huge store of autobiographical memories,
people feel that they know themselves since they have a lot of experiences.
But, cues within their environment tend to align with their self concept and
self-efficacy to give an overriding perceptual process.
However,
what people are predicted to do, think, act, feel, control and regulate
themselves are predicted to be influenced by their self and identity. So,
people do not simply respond to contextual cues, rather, the effect of those
cues on whom they are in the moment moderate and mediate their responses
(semesters, wheeler and Kay, 2010). Additionally, research reveals that apart
from taking a separated and connected perspective of self, considerations can
also be made by people about themselves from both distal and immersed perspectives. They can do this by considering themselves as
actors through inspirations from others and situations (Kross, 2009). On the
other hand, people can see themselves through the eyes of others alone by
considering the observations of other people about them (Cohen and Gunz, 2002).
Basically, research show that self – concepts are made up of cognitive
structures such as content and attitude or evaluative judgments that are used
to focus attention on one’s goals, make sense of the world and protect basic
worth of an individual (Oyeserman, 2009). It is therefore the contention of
this paper that emphasizing and instituting the self concept theory of self-
efficacy will help all staff of Ebonyi state university, Employers of labour
and other employees to establish proper intervention for computer proficiency
as a motivational factor for self-efficacy and job satisfaction.
Theory
of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour (Aysen & Fishbein, 1980). The
theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour was propounded by Ajsen and
Fishbain (1980).
This theory contends that the
primary determinant of an individual’s performance of a given behaviour is the
person’s intention to perform the behaviour. Also, that the individual’s
intention to perform is further determined by both the persons attitude towards
the behaviour and other influences from the persons social environment.
Therefore, it seems obvious that the concept of perceived control over the
opportunities, resources and skills necessary to perform a task could possibly
be viewed as the combined impact of planned behaviour theory and reasoned
action theory. It is the contention of this paper that considerations should be
given to members of staff who are ready to be proficient by expressing their
intention to perform. If this is done, staff of Ebonyi state university will be
motivated to build their capacity through computer proficiency and improve
their performance.
EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Research
shows that motivation for performance is contingent upon an individual’s level
of self – efficacy because one’s aspiration and the outcomes expected from
one’s effort is shaped by regulating one’s motivation through personal efficacy
beliefs (Bandura, 1997) Varied research report support the proposition that
self – efficacy influence an individual’s choice of whether to engage in a task
or not, the effort expended in performing the task and the persistence and
accomplishing the task as well as establishing the expected standard of the
performance (Bandura, 1977; Barling & Larkin, 1989; Bandura, 1986; Betz
& Hackett, 1989). Hence, the construct called self – efficacy could help to
explain why individuals may not accurately predict their behaviours from their
capacity to accomplish a specific task. Research show that self – efficacy
theory opined that the level of individuals confidence in their ability to
organize and execute a given course of action to solve a problem or accomplish
a task impact seriously on individuals self efficacy (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002) self efficacy seem to be a domain specific construct in organizational
performance and academic exploits.
Researchers, including Bandura,
argue that it is also task specific and attempts to measure self-efficacy at
the domain level often result in ambigious or uninterruptible results (Bandura,
1986). Many of the studies that show self-efficacy to account for lesser
variance than other personal determinations often stray from Banduras
prescription for a micro-analytic strategy. These studies, often asses
self-efficacy globally with just a few scales by asking participants to report
on their confidence or efficacy regarding a specific academic domain and not a
specific task performance. It is expected that at this level of self reporting,
self – efficacy may not reliably be separated from other personal determinants
such as anxiety, self – concept, background, locality, personality – type and
self – confidence. Thus, the question is whether one is actually measuring self
– efficacy, or more generally measuring attitudes and other common mechanisms
toward a given academic domain. However, considering the importance of
measuring other common mechanisms regarding a given academic domain is vital in
some areas of educational research, but more considerations should be given to
measuring self – efficacy specifically so as to obtain sufficient evaluative
information for performance on specific criterial tasks such as computer
proficiency (Centinkalp & Turskoy, 2011). In a study on teacher efficacy in
pre – college settings, Ross (1994) reviewed 88 teacher’s self - efficacy and
observed that there is a link between teachers sense of efficacy and their
behaviours or attitude towards teaching. Ross observed that teachers with
higher levels of efficacy are more likely to:
Learn
and use new approaches and strategies for teaching; use management techniques
that enhances student antonomy; provide special assistance to low achieving
students; build students self perception of their academic skills; set
attainable goals and persist in the face of student failure.
Sherman
and Fennema (1978) studied gender effect in mathematics learning and
mathematics self – efficacy, they discovered that mathematics confidence and
gender stereotyping are significant predictors of performance in mathematics self
– efficacy, Sue and Trayhurn (2000) observed that college students gender
influence self – efficacy in mathematics related actions, such as academic
major and career decisions. Lineages of research suggest that gender maintains
a significant influence on mathematics and computer efficacy through
mathematics and computer proficiency (Schunk, 1987; Lopez & Sullivan,
1992).
Several proficiency on self –
efficacy and computer proficiency reveal that those high in computer
proficiency adopt more cognitive and Meta cognitive strategies in their work
and persist longer than those low in computer proficiency (Pajares, 1997; Lee
& Bobko, 1994). Also, in a study focusing on computer proficiency and
employee’s performance, Pajares (1997) saw computer proficiency as a veritable
tool for employee performance and achievement.
Research
further reported that workers self – efficacy beliefs are correlated with
workers performances based on other motivational constructs. Such motivational
constructs include goal setting, modeling, attributions, problem – solving,
reward contingencies, self – regulation, test and domain specific anxiety,
strategy training, social comparisms and other beliefs, expectancy constructs
and different job performances (Pajares, 1997).
Generally, people are more
interested in performing activities in which they have high proficiency (Ren,
200). Research reveal that employees that are proficient in computer and make
use of it regularly, positively accept technology and are high in self –
efficacy. Hence, Ren (200) showed a positive correlation between high computer
proficiency and high self – efficacy among workers.
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Considering
the role of computer proficiency and gender on self – efficacy of Ebonyi state
university staff, both the theoretical and the empirical aspect of the study
were reviewed. Some theories were also used to emphasize the significance of
computer proficiency and gender on the self – efficacy of Ebonyi state
university staff.
The socio – cognitive theory explored
the impact of behaviour patterns and intervention strategies on acquisition and
maintenance of individual behavioural patterns. The socio – cognitive theory
provides desirable frame work for designing, implementing and evaluating
programmes within the individual’s social and physical environment. The self –
concept theory of self – efficacy was used to explain how people use external
cues to interpret and explain their own existence. The theory of reasoned
action and planned behaviour saw an individual’s intention to perform an action
as a major determinant of the person’s performance of a given behaviour.
However, it seems obvious that perceived control over one’s opportunities
resources and skills necessary for performance is contingent upon the combined
impact of planned behaviour theory and the theory of reasoned action.
HYPOTHESES
1. There
would be no statistically significant difference on self – efficacy among staff
with low and high computer proficiency.
2. There
would be no statistically significant difference on self – efficacy between old
and young computer proficient and non computer proficient workers.